Determining optimal parameters of the self-referent encoding task: A large-scale examination of self-referent cognition and depression

Transdiagnostic clustering of self-schema from self-referential judgements identifies subtypes of healthy personality and depression

Introduction

The heterogeneity of depressive and anxiety disorders complicates clinical management as it may account for differences in trajectory and treatment response. Self-schemas, which can be determined by Self-Referential Judgements (SRJs), are heterogeneous yet stable. SRJs have been used to characterize personality in the general population and shown to be prognostic in depressive and anxiety disorders.

Methods

In this study, we used SRJs from a Self-Referential Encoding Task (SRET) to identify clusters from a clinical sample of 119 patients recruited from the Institute of Mental Health presenting with depressive or anxiety symptoms and a non-clinical sample of 115 healthy adults. The generated clusters were examined in terms of most endorsed words, cross-sample correspondence, association with depressive symptoms and the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire and diagnostic category.

Results

We identify a 5-cluster solution in each sample and a 7-cluster solution in the combined sample. When perturbed, metrics such as optimum cluster number, criterion value, likelihood, DBI and CHI remained stable and cluster centers appeared stable when using BIC or ICL as criteria. Top endorsed words in clusters were meaningful across theoretical frameworks from personality, psychodynamic concepts of relatedness and self-definition, and valence in self-referential processing. The clinical clusters were labeled "Neurotic" (C1), "Extraverted" (C2), "Anxious to please" (C3), "Self-critical" (C4), "Conscientious" (C5). The non-clinical clusters were labeled "Self-confident" (N1), "Low endorsement" (N2), "Non-neurotic" (N3), "Neurotic" (N4), "High endorsement" (N5). The combined clusters were labeled "Self-confident" (NC1), "Externalising" (NC2), "Neurotic" (NC3), "Secure" (NC4), "Low endorsement" (NC5), "High endorsement" (NC6), "Self-critical" (NC7). Cluster differences were observed in endorsement of positive and negative words, latency biases, recall biases, depressive symptoms, frequency of depressive disorders and self-criticism.

Discussion

Overall, clusters endorsing more negative words tended to endorse fewer positive words, showed more negative biases in reaction time and negative recall bias, reported more severe depressive symptoms and a higher frequency of depressive disorders and more self-criticism in the clinical population. SRJ-based clustering represents a novel transdiagnostic framework for subgrouping patients with depressive and anxiety symptoms that may support the future translation of the science of self-referential processing, personality and psychodynamic concepts of self-definition to clinical applications.

Self-schemas and information processing biases as mechanisms underlying sexual orientation disparities in depressive symptoms: Results from a longitudinal, population-based study

Sexual minority individuals experience higher prevalence of major depression and more frequent depressive symptoms compared to heterosexual individuals. Although existing theories have suggested cognitive mechanisms that may explain these disparities, empirical tests are limited by a reliance on cross-sectional designs, self-reported measures, and nonprobability samples. We analyzed data from a longitudinal, population-based study of young adults (N = 1,065; n = 497 sexual minority) who completed validated measures of depressive symptoms over a 3-year period; at Wave 2, participants completed the self-referent encoding task, a behavioral task assessing self-schemas and information processing biases. Self-schemas were measured with the drift rate, which was estimated via the composite of endorsement of positive or negative words as self-referential (or not) and the reaction time for these decisions. Information processing biases were operationalized as the total number of negative words that were both endorsed as self-referential and recalled after the task, divided by the total number of words endorsed and recalled. Compared to heterosexuals, sexual minorities displayed significantly higher negative self-schemas and recalled a significantly higher proportion of negative words endorsed as self-referential, relative to total number of words. In turn, these differences in self-schemas and information processing biases mediated the sexual orientation disparity in depressive symptoms. Moreover, among sexual minorities, perceived discrimination predicted greater negative self-schemas and information processing biases, which mediated the prospective association between discrimination and depressive symptoms. These findings provide the strongest evidence to date for cognitive risk factors that underlie sexual orientation disparities in depression, highlighting potential intervention targets. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Catch the drift: Depressive symptoms track neural response during more efficient decision-making for negative self-referents

Background

Adolescence is a time of heightened risk for developing depression and also a critical period for the development and integration of self-identity. Despite this, the relation between the neurophysiological correlates of self-referential processing and major depressive symptoms in youth is not well understood. Here, we leverage computational modeling of the self-referential encoding task (SRET) to identify behavioral moderators of the association between the posterior late positive potential (LPP), an event-related potential associated with emotion regulation, and youth self-reported symptoms of depression. Specifically, within a drift-diffusion framework, we evaluated whether the association between the posterior LPP and youth symptoms of major depression was moderated by drift rate, a parameter reflecting processing efficiency during self-evaluative decisions.

Methods

A sample of 106 adolescents, aged 12 to 17 (53% male; Mage = 14.49, SD = 1.70), completed the SRET with concurrent high-density electroencephalography and self-report measures of depression and anxiety.

Results

Findings indicated a significant moderation: for youth showing greater processing efficiency (drift rate) when responding to negative compared to positive words, larger posterior LPPs predicted greater depressive symptom severity.

Limitations

We relied on a community sample and our study was cross-sectional in nature. Future longitudinal work with clinically depressed youth would be beneficial.

Conclusions

Our results suggest a neurobehavioral model of adolescent depression wherein efficient processing of negative information co-occurs with increased demands on affective self-regulation. Our findings also have clinical relevance; youth's neurophysiological response (posterior LPP) and performance during the SRET may serve as a novel target for tracking treatment-related changes in one's self-identity.

Self-Relevance Moderates the Relationship between Depressive Symptoms and Corrugator Activity during the Imagination of Personal Episodic Events

Accumulating evidence suggests depression is associated with blunted reactivity to positive and negative stimuli, known as emotion context insensitivity (ECI). However, ECI is not consistently observed in the literature, suggesting moderators that influence its presence. We propose self-relevance as one such moderator, with ECI most apparent when self-relevance is low. We examined this proposal by measuring self-report and facial electromyography (EMG) from the corrugator muscle while participants (n = 81) imagined hypothetical scenarios with varying self-relevance and recalled autobiographical memories. Increased depressive symptoms on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale were associated with less differentiated arousal and self-relevance ratings between happy, neutral, and sad scenarios. EMG analyses further revealed that individuals with high depressive symptoms exhibited blunted corrugator reactivity (reduced differentiation) for sad, neutral, and happy scenarios with low self-relevance, while corrugator reactivity remained sensitive to valence for highly self-relevant scenarios. By comparison, in individuals with low depressive symptoms, corrugator activity differentiated valence regardless of stimulus self-relevance. Supporting a role for self-relevance in shaping ECI, we observed no depression-related differences in emotional reactivity when participants recalled highly self-relevant happy or sad autobiographical memories. Our findings suggest ECI is primarily associated with blunted reactivity towards material deemed low in self-relevance.

Computational Modeling of Self-Referential Processing Reveals Domain General Associations with Adolescent Anxiety Symptoms

What an adolescent thinks about themselves, commonly termed self-referential processing, has significant implications for youth long-term psychological well-being. Self-referential processing plays an important role in anticipatory and reactive processing in social contexts and contributes to symptoms of social anxiety. Previous work examining self-referential processing largely focuses on child and adolescent depression, relying on endorsement and reaction time for positive and negative self-describing adjectives in a self-referential encoding task (SRET). Here, we employ computational methods to interrogate the latent processes underlying choice reaction times to evaluate the fit of several drift-diffusion models of youth SRET performance. A sample of 106 adolescent, aged 12-17 (53% male; M_age = 14.49, SD = 1.70) completed the SRET and self-report measures of anxiety and depression. Our results support the utility of modeling the SRET, where the rate of evidence accumulation (i.e., drift rate) during negative self-referential processing was related to social anxiety above-and-beyond mean task performance. Our regression analyses indicated that youth efficiency in processing of self-referential views was domain general to anxiety, highlighting the importance of assessing both social and physiological anxiety symptoms when predicting SRET performance. The computational modeling results revealed that self-referential views are not uniquely related to depression-related constructs but also facets of anxiety.

Self-judgment dissected: A computational modeling analysis of self-referential processing and its relationship to trait mindfulness facets and depression symptoms

Cognitive theories of depression, and mindfulness theories of well-being, converge on the notion that self-judgment plays a critical role in mental health. However, these theories have rarely been tested via tasks and computational modeling analyses that can disentangle the information processes operative in self-judgments. We applied a drift-diffusion computational model to the self-referential encoding task (SRET) collected before and after an 8-week mindfulness intervention (n = 96). A drift-rate regression parameter representing positive-relative to negative-self-referential judgment strength positively related to mindful awareness and inversely related to depression, both at baseline and over time; however, this parameter did not significantly relate to the interaction between mindful awareness and nonjudgmentalness. At the level of individual depression symptoms, at baseline, a spectrum of symptoms (inversely) correlated with the drift-rate regression parameter, suggesting that many distinct depression symptoms relate to valenced self-judgment between subjects. By contrast, over the intervention, changes in only a smaller subset of anhedonia-related depression symptoms showed substantial relationships with this parameter. Both behavioral and model-derived measures showed modest split-half and test-retest correlations. Results support cognitive theories that implicate self-judgment in depression and mindfulness theories, which imply that mindful awareness should lead to more positive self-views.

Cognitive-affective processes and suicidality in response to repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment resistant depression

BACKGROUND

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) can elicit 45-55 % response rates and may alleviate suicidality symptoms in treatment resistant depression (TRD). Blunted anticipatory reward sensitivity and negatively biased self-referential processing may predict trajectories of depressive and suicidality symptoms in rTMS for TRD and be modulated during treatment.

METHODS

Fifty-five individuals with TRD received four weeks of low-frequency rTMS applied to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (LFR-rTMS) and were followed until 17 weeks post-baseline. Participants completed behavioral measures of anticipatory reward sensitivity and self-referential processing at baseline and five weeks post-baseline (approximately one-week post-treatment). We examined whether baseline anticipatory reward sensitivity and self-referential processing predicted trajectories of depressive and suicidality symptoms from baseline to follow-up and whether these cognitive-affective variables showed change from baseline to week five.

RESULTS

Anticipatory reward sensitivity and negative self-referential encoding at baseline were associated with higher overall depressive symptoms and suicidality from baseline to 17 weeks post-baseline. At week five, participants self-attributed a higher number of positive traits and a lower number of negative traits and had a lesser tendency to remember negative relative to positive traits they had self-attributed, compared to baseline.

LIMITATIONS

The specificity of these results to LFR-rTMS is unknown in the absence of a comparison group, and our relatively small sample size precluded the interpretation of null results.

CONCLUSIONS

Baseline blunted anticipatory reward sensitivity and negative biases in self-referential processing may be risk factors for higher depressive symptoms and suicidality during and after LFR-rTMS, and LFR-rTMS may modulate self-referential processing.

Abnormal evidence accumulation underlies the positive memory deficit in depression

Healthy adults show better memory for low-arousal positive versus negative stimuli, but depression compromises this positive memory advantage. Existing studies are limited by small samples or analyses that provide limited insight into underlying mechanisms. Our study addresses these concerns by using a multistaged analysis, including diffusion modeling, to identify precise psychological processes underlying the positive memory advantage and its disruption by depression in a large sample. A total of 1,358 participants completed the BDI-II (Beck et al., 1996) and an emotional memory task. At encoding, participants judged whether positive and negative words were positive or self-descriptive. After a free recall test, participants viewed an equal mix of studied and unstudied words and judged whether each was "old" or "new"; if judged "old," they indicated whether the study source was a valence or self-reference judgment. We replicate the positive memory advantage and its decrease in depression in recall, recognition, and source accuracy. The hierarchical drift diffusion model (HDDM; Wiecki et al., 2013) revealed that higher BDI-II scores are associated with more efficient evidence accumulation for negative words in the recognition and source memory tasks. By contrast, evidence accumulation for positive words is unaffected by BDI-II during the recognition task but becomes less efficient with increased BDI-II during the source memory task. In conclusion, in a well-controlled design with a large sample, we find that depression reduces the positive memory advantage. HDDM analyses suggest that this reflects differential effects of depression on the speed of evidence accumulation during the retrieval of positive versus negative memories. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Mindfulness based cognitive therapy (MBCT) reduces depression-related self-referential processing in patients with bipolar disorder: an exploratory task-based study

Negative self-referential processing has fruitfully been studied in unipolar depressed patients, but remarkably less in patients with bipolar disorder (BD). This exploratory study examines the relation between task-based self-referential processing and depressive symptoms in BD and their possible importance to the working mechanism of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) for BD. The study population consisted of a subsample of patients with BD (n = 49) participating in an RCT of MBCT for BD, who were assigned to MBCT + TAU (n = 23) or treatment as usual (TAU) (n = 26). Patients performed the self-referential encoding task (SRET), which measures (1) positive and (2) negative attributions to oneself as well as (3) negative self-referential memory bias, before and after MBCT + TAU or TAU. At baseline, all three SRET measures were significantly related to depressive symptoms in patients with BD. Moreover, repeated measures analyses of variance revealed that negative self-referential memory bias diminished over time in the MBCT + TAU group, compared with the TAU group. Given the preliminary nature of our findings, future research should explore the possibly mediating role of reducing negative self-referential memory bias in preventing and treating depressive symptoms in BD through MBCT.

Trait attributions and threat appraisals explain why an entity theory of personality predicts greater internalizing symptoms during adolescence

Adolescents who hold an entity theory of personality - the belief that people cannot change - are more likely to report internalizing symptoms during the socially stressful transition to high school. It has been puzzling, however, why a cognitive belief about the potential for change predicts symptoms of an affective disorder. The present research integrated three models - implicit theories, hopelessness theories of depression, and the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat - to shed light on this issue. Study 1 replicated the link between an entity theory and internalizing symptoms by synthesizing multiple datasets (N = 6,910). Study 2 examined potential mechanisms underlying this link using 8-month longitudinal data and 10-day diary reports during the stressful first year of high school (N = 533, 3,199 daily reports). The results showed that an entity theory of personality predicted increases in internalizing symptoms through tendencies to make fixed trait causal attributions about the self and maladaptive (i.e., "threat") stress appraisals. The findings support an integrative model whereby situation-general beliefs accumulate negative consequences for psychopathology via situation-specific attributions and appraisals.

Application of Cognitive Bias Testing in Neuropsychiatric Disorders: A Mini-Review Based on Animal Studies

Cognitive biases can arise from cognitive processing under affective states and reflect the impact of emotion on cognition. In animal studies, the existing methods for detecting animal emotional state are still relatively limited, and cognitive bias test has gradually become an important supplement. In recent years, its effectiveness in animal research related to neuropsychiatric disorders has been widely verified. Some studies have found that cognitive bias test is more sensitive than traditional test methods such as forced swimming test and sucrose preference test in detecting emotional state. Therefore, it has great potential to become an important tool to measure the influence of neuropsychiatric disorder-associated emotions on cognitive processing. Moreover, it also can be used in early drug screening to effectively assess the potential effects or side effects of drugs on affective state prior to clinical trials. In this mini-review, we summarize the application of cognitive bias tests in animal models of neuropsychiatric disorders such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder, and pain. We also discussed its critical value in the identification of neuropsychiatric disorders and the validation of therapeutic approaches.

Amygdala sensitivity for negative information as a neural marker for negative memory bias across psychiatric diagnoses

Self-referent negative memory bias is a known risk factor for depression, but recent evidence suggests its function as a transdiagnostic cognitive depressotypic marker. The amygdala's sensitivity for negative information is considered a neurobiological depressotypic marker. However, their relationship remains unknown. We transdiagnostically investigated the association between the amygdala's sensitivity, self-referent negative memory bias and its two components: negative endorsement bias and negative recall bias. Patients (n= 125) with (multimorbid) stress-related and neurodevelopmental psychiatric disorders and healthy controls (n= 78) performed an fMRI task to assess the amygdala's sensitivity for negative information and a task outside the scanner for the biases. Linear regression models assessed their associations. The left amygdala's sensitivity for negative information was significantly positively associated with negative recall bias in patients, but not controls. There were no significant associations with self-referent negative memory bias or negative endorsement bias or between the two depressotypic markers. Thus, the left amygdala's sensitivity for negative information may be considered a neural marker of negative memory bias across psychiatric diagnoses. Further research on the interactons with known determinants such as genetic predisposition is required to fully understand the relationship between the amygdala's sensitivity for negative information and these biases.

Win, lose, or draw: Examining salience, reward memory, and depression with the reward positivity

The reward positivity (RewP) is a putative biomarker of depression. Careful control of stimulus properties and manipulation of both stimulus valence and salience could facilitate interpretation of the RewP. RewP interpretation could further be improved by investigating functional outcomes of a blunted RewP in depression, such as reduced memory for rewarding outcomes. This study sought to advance RewP interpretation first by advancing task design through use of neutral (i.e., draw) control trials and counterbalanced feedback stimuli. Second, we examined the RewP's association with memory and the impact of depression. Undergraduates completed self-report measures of depression and anhedonia prior to a modified doors task in which words were displayed in colored fonts that indicated win, loss, or draw feedback. Memory of the feedback associated with each word (i.e., source memory) was tested. Results showed that RewP response to wins was more positive than to losses, which was more positive than to draws. The RewP was not associated with depression or anhedonia. The low depression group showed a source memory advantage for win words, but the high depression group did not. Source memory showed small relations to the RewP, but these did not survive Bonferroni correction. Results suggest the RewP is sensitive to salience and highlight challenges in detecting an association between the RewP and depression in modified doors tasks. Findings indicate that depression is related to dysfunctional source memory for reward but not loss and that future research should probe the possible associations between the RewP and memory in depression.

Self-referential Processing in Remitted Depression: An Event-Related Potential Study

Background

Identifying mechanisms of major depressive disorder that continue into remission is critical, as these mechanisms may contribute to subsequent depressive episodes. Biobehavioral markers related to depressogenic self-referential processing biases have been identified in adults with depression. Thus, we investigated whether these risk factors persisted during remission as well as contributed to the occurrence of stress and depressive symptoms over time.

Methods

At baseline, adults with remitted depression (n = 33) and healthy control subjects (n = 33) were administered diagnostic and stress interviews as well as self-report symptom measures. In addition, participants completed a self-referential encoding task while electroencephalography data were acquired. Stress interviews and self-report symptom measures were readministered at the 6-month follow-up assessment.

Results

Drift diffusion modeling showed that compared with healthy individuals, adults with remitted depression exhibited a slower drift rate to negative stimuli, indicating a slower tendency to reject negative stimuli as self-relevant. At the 6-month follow-up assessment, a slower drift rate to negative stimuli predicted greater interpersonal stress severity among individuals with remitted depression but not healthy individuals while controlling for both baseline depression symptoms and interpersonal stress severity. Highlighting the specificity of this effect, results were nonsignificant when predicting noninterpersonal stress. For self-relevant positive words endorsed, adults with remitted depression exhibited smaller left- than right-hemisphere late positive potential amplitudes; healthy control subjects did not show hemispheric differences.

Conclusions

Self-referential processing deficits persist into remission. In line with the stress generation framework, these biases predicted the occurrence of interpersonal stress, which may provide insight about a potential pathway for the re-emergence of depressive symptoms.

The effect of self-referential processing on anxiety in response to naturalistic and laboratory stressors

Although stressful life events increase risk for symptoms of Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD), we know little about mechanisms that increase GAD symptoms during times of stress. Despite evidence that self-referential processing contributes to other forms of psychopathology, namely depression, it is unknown whether self-referential processing also contributes to symptoms of GAD. Thus, we examined the association of self-referential processing with GAD symptoms in response to a naturalistic stressor (Study 1; n=135) and with anxiety-tension in response to a laboratory stressor (Study 2; n=56). In Study 1, participants completed the self-referential encoding task (SRET) in their initial weeks of university, and we assessed GAD symptoms four times across the semester. In Study 2, participants completed the SRET immediately before a laboratory stressor, and we assessed moment-to-moment changes in anxiety-tension. Greater negatively biased self-referential processing was associated with higher GAD symptoms at the start of university and greater reactivity to the laboratory stressor. In contrast, greater positively biased self-referential processing served as a protective factor associated with greater decline in symptoms over time. This study is the first to demonstrate that there are valence-specific effects of self-referential processing on anxiety, suggesting that self-referential processing may be relevant to GAD.

Neurophysiological Markers Related to Negative Self-referential Processing Differentiate Adolescent Suicide Ideators and Attempters

Background

Adolescent suicide is a major public health concern, and presently, there is a limited understanding of the neurophysiological correlates of suicidal behaviors. Cognitive models of suicide indicate that negative views of the self are related to suicidal thoughts and behaviors, and this study investigated whether behavioral and neural correlates of self-referential processing differentiate suicide ideators from recent attempters.

Methods

Adolescents with depression reporting current suicidal ideation and no lifetime suicide attempts (suicide ideators, n = 30) and past-year suicide attempts (recent attempters, n = 26) completed a self-referential encoding task while high-density electroencephalogram data were recorded. Behavioral analyses focused on negative processing bias (i.e., tendency to attribute negative information as being self-relevant) and drift rate (i.e., slope of reaction time and response type that corresponds to how quickly information is accumulated to make a decision about whether words are self-referent). Neurophysiological markers probing components reflecting early semantic monitoring (P2), engagement (early late positive potential), and effortful encoding (late late positive potential) also were tested.

Results

Adolescent suicide ideators and recent suicide attempters reported comparable symptom severity, suicide ideation, and mental disorders. Although there were no behavioral differences, compared with suicide ideators, suicide attempters exhibited greater P2 amplitudes for negative versus positive words, which may reflect enhanced attention and arousal in response to negative self-referential stimuli. There were no group differences for the early or late late positive potential.

Conclusions

Enhanced sensory arousal in response to negative stimuli-that is, attentional orienting to semantic, emotional, and self-relevant features-differentiates adolescent suicide attempters from ideators and thus may signal risk for suicidal behavior.

Multifactorial prediction of depression diagnosis and symptom dimensions

While depression is a leading cause of disability, prior investigations of depression have been limited by studying correlates in isolation. A data-driven approach was applied to identify out-of-sample predictors of current depression from adults (N = 217) sampled on a continuum of no depression to clinical levels. The current study used elastic net regularized regression and predictors from sociodemographic, self-report, polygenic scores, resting electroencephalography, pupillometry, actigraphy, and cognitive tasks to classify individuals into currently depressed (MDE), psychiatric control (PC), and no current psychopathology (NP) groups, as well as predicting symptom severity and lifetime MDE. Cross-validated models explained 20.6% of the out-of-fold deviance for the classification of MDEs versus PC, 33.2% of the deviance for MDE versus NP, but -0.6% of the deviance between PC and NP. Additionally, predictors accounted for 25.7% of the out-of-fold variance in anhedonia severity, 65.7% of the variance in depression severity, and 12.9% of the deviance in lifetime depression (yes/no). Self-referent processing, anhedonia, and psychosocial functioning emerged as important differentiators of MDE and PC groups. Findings highlight the advantages of using psychiatric control groups to isolate factors specific to depression.

Recall bias during adolescence: Gender differences and associations with depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

There is a sharp increase in depression in females in mid-adolescence, but we do not understand why. Cognitive theories suggest that people with depression have negative biases in recalling self-referential information. We tested whether recall biases were more negative in girls in early and mid-adolescence and were associated with depressive symptoms.

METHODS

315 young and 263 mid-adolescents (11-12 and 13-15 years) completed a surprise test, assessing recall of social evaluation about the self (self-referential) or another person (other-referential). The short Mood and Feelings Questionnaire measured depressive symptoms. We tested the effects of condition (self-referential/other-referential), valence (positive/negative), gender, and age group on correct recall (hits) and associations with depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

There was no evidence for gender or age differences in positive or negative self-referential recall. Self-referential positive hits were negatively associated with depressive symptoms (adjusted coefficient=-0.38, 95% CI=-0.69-0.08, p=0.01). Self-referential negative hits were positively associated with depressive symptoms (adjusted coefficient=0.45, 95% CI=0.15-0.75, p=0.003), and this association was stronger in females (adjusted interaction p=0.04).

LIMITATIONS

The reliability and validity of the recall task are unknown. We cannot provide evidence of a causal effect of recall on depressive symptoms in this cross-sectional study.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents who recalled more self-referential negative and fewer self-referential positive words had more severe depressive symptoms. Females did not demonstrate more recall biases, but the association between self-referential negative hits and depressive symptoms was stronger in females. Negative self-referential recall may be a risk factor for depressive symptoms and is a good candidate for longitudinal studies.

Neurocognitive predictors of self-reported reward responsivity and approach motivation in depression: A data-driven approach

BACKGROUND

Individual differences in reward-related processes, such as reward responsivity and approach motivation, appear to play a role in the nature and course of depression. Prior work suggests that cognitive biases for valenced information may contribute to these reward processes. Yet there is little work examining how biased attention, processing, and memory for positively and negatively valenced information may be associated with reward-related processes in samples with depression symptoms.

METHODS

We used a data-driven, machine learning (elastic net) approach to identify the best predictors of self-reported reward-related processes using multiple tasks of attention, processing, and memory for valenced information measured across behavioral, eye tracking, psychophysiological, and computational modeling approaches (n = 202). Participants were adults (ages 18-35) who ranged in depression symptom severity from mild to severe.

RESULTS

Models predicted between 5.0-12.2% and 9.7-28.0% of held-out test sample variance in approach motivation and reward responsivity, respectively. Low self-referential processing of positively valenced information was the most robust, albeit modest, predictor of low approach motivation and reward responsivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Self-referential processing of positive information is the strongest predictor of reward responsivity and approach motivation in a sample ranging from mild to severe depression symptom severity. Experiments are now needed to clarify the causal relationship between self-referential processing of positively valenced information and reward processes in depression.

Association between negative cognitive bias and depression: A symptom-level approach

Cognitive models of depression posit that negatively biased self-referent processing and attention have important roles in the disorder. However, depression is a heterogeneous collection of symptoms and all symptoms are unlikely to be associated with these negative cognitive biases. The current study involved 218 community adults whose depression ranged from no symptoms to clinical levels of depression. Random forest machine learning was used to identify the most important depression symptom predictors of each negative cognitive bias. Depression symptoms were measured with the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Model performance was evaluated using predictive R-squared (Rpred2), the expected variance explained in data not used to train the algorithm, estimated by 10 repetitions of 10-fold cross-validation. Using the self-referent encoding task (SRET), depression symptoms explained 34% to 45% of the variance in negative self-referent processing. The symptoms of sadness, self-dislike, pessimism, feelings of punishment, and indecision were most important. Notably, many depression symptoms made virtually no contribution to this prediction. In contrast, for attention bias for sad stimuli, measured with the dot-probe task using behavioral reaction time (RT) and eye gaze metrics, no reliable symptom predictors were identified. Findings indicate that a symptom-level approach may provide new insights into which symptoms, if any, are associated with negative cognitive biases in depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

A Longitudinal Investigation of Cognitive Self-schemas across Adolescent Development

Research in developmental psychology highlights youth's self-schemas as one possible pathway to improve adolescents' functioning and promote positive developmental outcomes. Despite this, the trajectory of positive and negative self-schemas is relatively understudied. This study addresses this limitation by empirically examining the trajectory of self-schemas in a community sample of 623 youth (M = 13.04 years; 54% female; 49% African American, 4% Biracial, 47% European American) who were followed over a seven-year period. Caregivers completed measures of parenting practices, maternal rumination and negative inferential style, and adolescents completed a computerized behavioral task assessing self-schemas (i.e., mental frameworks that guide attention, interpretation, and memory of one's experiences). Multilevel growth curve modeling results demonstrated a quadratic slope for negative self-schemas and no mean-level change for positive self-schemas. These trajectories did not vary by gender or racial group. However, parenting factors differentially influenced the trajectories. Specifically, higher levels of parental involvement at baseline, or an active interest and engagement in a child's experiences and activities, related to lower levels of negative self-schemas during adolescence. Additionally, higher levels of parental rumination and parental negative control at baseline related to lower levels of youth positive self-schemas at baseline. These findings contribute to models of youth cognitive development.

Positive imagery training increases positive self-referent cognition in depression

Depressed adults often show a bias towards negative self-referent processing at the expense of positive self-referent processing. The current study assessed whether a mental imagery intervention (Positive Self Reference Training-PSRT) delivered via the Internet could improve self-referent processing and depressive symptomatology among adults with moderate or greater depression symptoms. Participants were recruited via online methods and randomly assigned to one of two computerized interventions: active PSRT (n=44) or control training (NTC; n=43). The PSRT involved visualizing the self in response to different positive cues (e.g., an achievement) every other day for two weeks. The NTC provided neutral cues about objects. Self-referential processing of positive and negative adjectives and depression symptoms were measured at baseline, one week, and two weeks after initiating training. Over those two weeks, PSRT participants showed a greater increase in positive self-referent processing than did NTC participants. Negative self-referent processing and symptoms of depression declined comparably in both groups. Similarly, for both groups, increase in positive and decrease in negative self-referent processing was associated with a greater reduction in depression. These results indicate that mental imagery has the potential to improve self-referential processing, especially for positive stimuli, which may, in turn, help reduce depressive symptomatology.

Negative self-referential processing is associated with genetic variation in the serotonin transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR): Evidence from two independent studies

The current research examined whether carriers of the short 5-HTTLPR allele (in SLC6A4), who have been shown to selectively attend to negative information, exhibit a bias towards negative self-referent processing. The self-referent encoding task (SRET) was used to measure self-referential processing of positive and negative adjectives. Ratcliff's diffusion model isolated and extracted decision-making components from SRET responses and reaction times. Across the initial (N = 183) and replication (N = 137) studies, results indicated that short 5-HTTLPR allele carriers more easily categorized negative adjectives as self-referential (i.e., higher drift rate). Further, drift rate was associated with recall of negative self-referential stimuli. Findings across both studies provide further evidence that genetic variation may contribute to the etiology of negatively biased processing of self-referent information. Large scale studies examining the genetic contributions to negative self-referent processing may be warranted.