Narrative theory III: Evolutionary narratives addressing mating motives change discounting and tobacco valuation

Using sign tracking to experimentally increase self-control in rats

Impulsive choice describes a preference for a smaller-sooner reward (SSR) over a larger-later reward (LLR). A large body of research has examined different procedures for decreasing impulsive choice in nonhuman subjects. One limitation of these procedures is the extensive training duration required to achieve the desired results. To address this limitation, the current experiment examined the effects of a brief course of Pavlovian training, designed to establish a conditioned stimulus (CS) that could be strategically used to encourage LLR choices. Forty male Long-Evans rats were randomly assigned to appetitive Pavlovian or unpaired training. A lever insertion signaled an upcoming unconditioned stimulus (i.e., food presentation) for Pavlovian rats and it acquired CS properties. The lever was uncorrelated with the US in the unpaired group, and it did not acquire CS properties. In the subsequent impulsive-choice assessment, the lever from the training phase served as the lever rats pressed to choose the LLR. After an LLR choice, the lever remained in the chamber during the delay to the LLR, just as the SSR lever remained in the chamber until that reward was delivered. Pavlovian-trained rats sign tracked toward the lever CS and made significantly fewer impulsive choices than did rats in the unpaired group.

Latent profiles of regulatory flexibility in alcohol use disorder: Associations with delay discounting and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress

BACKGROUND

Regulatory flexibility (RF) involves three distinct components of self-regulation: context sensitivity, repertoire, and feedback responsiveness. Subgroups based on differences in RF have been identified in a general sample and are differentially associated with symptoms of anxiety and depression. However, potential RF profiles have not been examined in individuals with substance use disorders. This study examined RF subtypes in individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and their associations with psychosocial outcomes (i.e., depression, anxiety, and stress) and delay discounting (a core feature of addiction).

METHODS

Individuals (n = 200) with an Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test score of >16 (mean = 24.12 (±6.92)) were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk (mean = 37.26 years old (±11.41); 94 (47%) women). Participants completed the Context Sensitivity Index, the Flexible Regulation of Emotional Expression Scale, and the Coping Flexibility Scale to assess RF. Participants also completed an Adjusting Amount Delay Discounting Task and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Latent profile analyses (LPA) were used to identify patterns in RF deficits. Kruskal-Wallis and Dunn's tests were performed to examine differences in discounting rates and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress across RF profiles.

RESULTS

The LPA revealed a 2-profile characterization, including (1) context sensitive regulators (CSR; n = 39) and (2) moderate flexibility regulators (MFR; n = 161). CSR demonstrated significantly lower symptoms of depression (p = 0.004), anxiety (p < 0.001), and stress (p < 0.001) than MFR. CSR also displayed significantly lower AUDIT scores (p = 0.031).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings illustrate that among individuals with moderate-severe AUD, those high in context sensitivity coupled with moderate abilities in repertoire and feedback responsiveness have fewer symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress. Together, context sensitivity may be an important and protective component of RF among individuals with AUD.

Future thinking to decrease real-world drinking in alcohol use disorder: Repairing reinforcer pathology in a randomized proof-of-concept trial

Reinforcer Pathology theory proposes that expanding the temporal window of reinforcement (i.e., reducing delay discounting) using episodic future thinking (EFT) would decrease alcohol consumption. However, evidence of effectiveness in real-world settings is lacking. Using a randomized proof-of-concept field trial, the current study examined the effect of expanding the temporal window of reinforcement, using remotely delivered EFT, on decreasing real-world alcohol consumption among individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD). Fifty-two individuals (9 females) aged 18-65 years who met the DSM-5 criteria for moderate or severe AUD and aimed to drink in moderation or abstain from drinking completed the study and were included in analysis. EFT significantly (p = .031) reduced alcohol consumption (mean change of consumption pre-post intervention = -2.18 drinks/day) compared to control episodic recent thinking (ERT; mean change of -0.52 drinks/day). Changes in discounting rates pre-post intervention significantly predicted changes in alcohol consumption (coef. = .424, 95% CI [.043-.813], p = .030) even after controlling for age, gender, race, income, education, marital status, and family history of addiction. Overall satisfaction across groups was rated as 3.92 on a 1 to 5-point scale, suggesting that the current remote approach is feasible and acceptable. The current findings were congruent with the theory, Reinforcer Pathology, that EFT expands the temporal window and decreases alcohol consumption, and the remote approach was considered feasible and acceptable. We believe the present study contributes new knowledge with tangible benefits for scientifically understanding and better defining novel interventions that may be clinically deployed to improve treatment outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The phenotype of recovery VI: The association between life-history strategies, delay discounting, and maladaptive health and financial behaviors among individuals in recovery from alcohol use disorders

BACKGROUND

The life-history theory is a well-established framework that predicts behaviors and explains how and why organisms allocate effort and resources to different life goals. Delay discounting (DD) is associated with risky behaviors and has been suggested as a candidate behavioral marker of addiction. Thus, we investigated the relationship between DD, life-history strategies, and engagement in risky behaviors among individuals in recovery from alcohol use disorder (AUD).

METHODS

Data from 110 individuals in recovery from addiction from The International Quit & Recovery Registry, an ongoing online registry designed to understand recovery phenotype, were included in the analysis. The association between life-history strategies, DD, engagement in risky behaviors, and remission status were assessed.

RESULTS

Life-history strategy scores were significantly associated with DD rates and finance, health, and personal development behaviors after controlling for age, sex, race, ethnicity, years of education, marital status, smoking status, and history of other substance use. Remission status was significantly associated with life-history strategy, DD, drug use, fitness, health, and safe driving after controlling for age, sex, race, years of education, marital status, and smoking status. In addition, a mediation analysis using Hayes' methods revealed that the discounting rates partially mediated the association between remission status and life-history strategy scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Life-history strategies and remission status are both significantly associated with DD and various health and finance behaviors among individuals in recovery from AUD. This finding supports the characterizations of DD as a candidate behavioral marker of addiction that could help differentiate subgroups needing special attention or specific interventions to improve the outcomes of their recovery. Future longitudinal studies are warranted to understand the relationships between changes in life-history strategies, DD, maladaptive health behaviors, and remission status over time.

Reinforcer pathology's alternative reinforcer hypothesis: A preliminary examination

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

The novel theory of Reinforcer Pathology states that the temporal window of integration, measured by delay discounting (DD), determines the value of reinforcers. Based on the Reinforcer Pathology theory, the valuation of alternative reinforcers is positively associated with the length of the temporal window (negatively with rates of discounting). The objective of this article is to test the Reinforcer Pathology theory by reanalyzing data from a prior report (Carr & Epstein, 2018) in order to examine the association between the reinforcing value of alternative reinforcement and the length of the measured temporal window.

METHOD

Participants (N = 250) who completed an adjusting delay discounting task and the Pleasant Events Schedule (PES) were included in the study. PES provides a measurement of a reinforcement score (a cross-product of PES measures of frequency and pleasantness) for 45 noneating alternative activities. Analysis of Variance and Spearman product-moment correlations were completed.

RESULTS

Delay discounting was significantly positively correlated with sedentary reinforcement and significantly negatively correlated with cognitively enriching activities. A significant interaction was observed in the preference for between food and cognitive-enriching context as a function ln(k) in predicting the cognitive-enriching activity class. Nonsignificant relationships were also observed with the correlation of delay discounting to the reinforcement of social and physical activities.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings provide initial support for Reinforcer Pathology theory and indicate that the temporal window over which reinforcers are integrated may be a factor contributing to a preference for some healthy or unhealthy alternative reinforcers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Choice bundling, unpacked: Observed and predicted effects on intertemporal choice in an additive model of hyperbolic delay discounting

One method known to increase preference for larger, later rewards (LLRs) over smaller, sooner rewards (SSRs) is choice bundling, in which a single choice produces a series of repeating consequences over time. The present study examined whether effects of choice bundling on preference for LLRs: (1) increase with the number of rewards in the bundle (i.e., bundle size); (2) are independent of differences in reward magnitude between conditions; and (3) accord with predictions of an additive model of hyperbolic delay discounting, in which the value of a bundle of rewards can be expressed as the summed discounted value of all rewards in that bundle. Participants (N = 252) completed a choice task to assess valuation of monetary LLRs at bundle sizes of 1 (control), 3, and 9 rewards per choice (ascending/descending order counterbalanced). To control for the magnitude effect, the total reward amounts were held constant across conditions. Choice bundling significantly increased LLR preference (p < .001), with the largest effect observed at the largest bundle size. The descending bundle-size order produced significantly greater LLR preference than the ascending order (p < .05), although order did not significantly interact with bundle size. Difference scores between observed measures and those predicted by an additive model of hyperbolic discounting were small and not significantly different than zero, but were not equivalent to zero. Future research should investigate the clinical utility of choice bundling for reducing the maladaptive health behavior (e.g., substance use) with which delay discounting is associated.

Behavioral economic cigarette demand among individuals who smoke with and without obesity

OBJECTIVE

Obesity and cigarette smoking are leading preventable causes of mortality, with greater mortality risk when these disorders occur together. Comorbid obesity and cigarette smoking may affect the valuation of cigarettes. The present study examines the demand for cigarettes between obese and nonobese smokers.

METHOD

Participants (N = 187) from four in-laboratory studies completed the hypothetical cigarette purchase task. According to self-reported height and weight, participants were assigned to either the obese group (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 30) or to the nonobese group (BMI < 30).

RESULTS

Significant differences in demand intensity were observed between individuals with and without obesity, F(1, 168) = 9.284, p = .003, with individuals who smoke and are obese showing higher demand intensity (product purchasing when free). These differences in demand intensity between groups remained after adjusting for the number of cigarettes consumed per day. No differences were observed in elasticity of demand, F(1, 168) = 1.033, p = .311.

CONCLUSIONS

The results reported here suggest that individuals who smoke and are obese may value brief, intense, and immediate reinforcers more than individuals who smoke and are not obese. Further research may suggest reinforcer pathology as a basis for this result. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Temporal discounting as a candidate behavioral marker of obesity

Although obesity is a result of processes operating at multiple levels, most forms result from decision-making behavior. The aim of this review was to examine the candidacy of temporal discounting (TD) (i.e. the reduction in the value of a reinforcer as a function of the delay to its receipt) as a behavioral marker of obesity. For this purpose, we assessed whether TD has the ability to: identify risk for obesity development, diagnose obesity, track obesity progression, predict treatment prognosis/outcomes, and measure treatment effectiveness. Three databases (Pubmed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science) were searched using a combination of terms related to TD and obesity. A total of 153 papers were reviewed. Several areas show strong evidence of TD's predictive utility as a behavioral marker of obesity (e.g., distinguishing obese from non obese). However, other areas have limited and/or mixed evidence (e.g., predicting weight change). Given the positive relationship for TD in the majority of domains examined, further consideration for TD as a behavioral marker of obesity is warranted.

The problems with delay discounting: a critical review of current practices and clinical applications

Delay discounting paradigms have gained widespread popularity across clinical research. Given the prevalence in the field, researchers have set lofty expectations for the importance of delay discounting as a key transdiagnostic process and a 'core' process underlying specific domains of dysfunction (e.g. addiction). We believe delay discounting has been prematurely reified as, in and of itself, a core process underlying psychological dysfunction, despite significant concerns with the construct validity of discounting rates. Specifically, high delay discounting rates are only modestly related to measures of psychological dysfunction and therefore are not 'core' to these more complex behavioral problems. Furthermore, discounting rates do not appear to be specifically related to any disorder(s) or dimension(s) of psychopathology. This raises fundamental concerns about the utility of discounting, if the measure is only loosely associated with most forms of psychopathology. This stands in striking contrast to claims that discounting can serve as a 'marker' for specific disorders, despite never demonstrating adequate sensitivity or specificity for any disorder that we are aware of. Finally, empirical evidence does not support the generalizability of discounting rates to other decisions made either in the lab or in the real-world, and therefore discounting rates cannot and should not serve as a summary measure of an individual's decision-making patterns. We provide recommendations for improving future delay discounting research, but also strongly encourage researchers to consider whether the empirical evidence supports the field's hyper-focus on discounting.

A story to tell: the role of narratives in reducing delay discounting for people who strongly discount the future

Delay Discounting (DD) or devaluing a future, larger reward in favour of a smaller, more immediate reward, has been linked to negative health behaviours. One intervention that reduces DD is Episodic Future Thinking (EFT). EFT has participants generate cues representing positive future events that correspond to temporal windows during the DD task. The current study examined if incorporating EFT cues into narratives would strengthen effects on DD. One hundred and sixty adults were recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk and were randomised to traditional or narrative EFT. Results showed that participants in narrative EFT discounted the future less (p = 0.034) than participants who engaged in traditional EFT. This novel approach to EFT is well grounded in research and theory on the power of narratives to influence behaviour and can open a new window into ways to reduce DD to strengthen engagement in positive choices.

A Reinforcer Pathology perspective on relapse

The Reinforcer Pathology theory proposes conditions under which drugs emerge as excessively preferred reinforcers compared to other available reinforcers among drug users. The theory highlights 2 key variables as important determinants of drug preference: (a) excessive preference for immediate rewards (high discounting of future rewards); and (b) excessive valuation for addictive reinforcers (e.g., drugs). Two iterations of the Reinforcer Pathology theory exist with the latest iteration (i.e., Reinforcer Pathology 2.0) specifying that the temporal window of reinforcer integration (measured by delay discounting) is a determinant of reinforcer value. The 2 iterations of the Reinforcer Pathology theory are described. A novel insight and understanding of abstinence and relapse from a Reinforcer Pathology perspective, limitations, and future directions are discussed. The Reinforcer Pathology theory continues the long-standing efforts to scientifically understand and better define novel concepts and methods to further translational research and improve treatment outcomes. Exploring the complementary relation between the Reinforcer Pathology perspective and other current approaches could have a valuable effect.

Reinforcer Pathology: Implications for Substance Abuse Intervention

The rate at which individuals discount future rewards (i.e., discounting rate) is strongly associated with their propensity for substance abuse as well as myriad other negative health behaviors. An excessive preference for immediately available rewards suggests a shortened time horizon in which immediate rewards are overvalued and future, potentially negative consequences are undervalued. This review outlines Reinforcer Pathology Theory (i.e., the interaction between excessive preference for immediately available rewards and the overvaluation of a particular commodity that offers brief, intense reinforcement), its neurobiological/behavioral underpinnings, and its implications for treating substance use disorders. In doing so, the current review provides an overview of a variety of ways in which interventions have been used to manipulate aspects of reinforcer pathology in an individual, including narrative theory, framing manipulations, and neuromodulation (e.g., working memory training, TMS) which may serve as promising avenues for the modulation of the temporal window and/or valuation of reinforcers.

Using an Experimental Medicine Approach to Identify Novel Determinants of Addiction

Our understanding and effectiveness in treating addiction is not fully adequate. Therefore, perhaps developing a pragmatic theory for identifying novel determinants and potential interventions is needed. The experimental medicine approach, derived from Claude Bernard, proposes a methodology for inductive theory development and suggests interventions directed at targets closely aligned with the underlying mechanisms of the disorder. The steps of theory development under this approach are intended to (1) identify an intervention target; (2) develop assays to verify target measurement; (3) engage the target via experiment or intervention; and (4) test the degree to which target engagement produces other therapeutically useful changes in the disorder. In this article, we review these steps in detail using an example from our work. That is, shortened temporal windows (target) is frequently observed among those who are addicted. Delay discounting is an assay used to measure that target. We and others have demonstrated manipulation of the target, delay discounting, is associated with changing the drug valuation among those with addiction. We conclude with a culmination of the experimental medicine approach by proposing a recently developed hypothesis of substance use disorder, Reinforcer Pathology 2.0.