Frontal theta band oscillations predict error correction and posterror slowing in typing

Event-related brain potentials to typing errors in transparent and intransparent German words

Error detection in typing is crucial for assessing the adequacy of ongoing actions, leveraging both predictive mechanisms for early detection and sensory feedback for late detection. Neurophysiological studies have supported the anticipation of errors through predictive models. This research extends the understanding of error detection in typing, focusing on the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying errors in transparent and intransparent German words. Thirty-six volunteer students typed out aurally presented words, classified as either orthographically transparent or intransparent, on a computer keyboard without the possibility of correction. Because of poor spelling or excessive artifacts, the final sample comprised 27 participants. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were obtained time-locked to key presses, and behavioral data on typing correctness and speed were collected. A higher error rate and longer latency for intransparent words compared to transparent ones were found, suggesting the complexity of spelling impacts typing correctness. Post-error slowing was observed, aligning with increased cognitive control following errors. ERPs revealed a negative component akin to the error-related negativity (ERN) for typing errors, with a pronounced ERN-like negativity preceding erroneous key-presses, particularly for intransparent words. The study provides evidence of the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying typing errors, highlighting the impact of orthographic transparency. The detection of an ERN-like negativity before erroneous key-presses, especially in typing intransparent words, underscores the brain's use of predictive mechanisms for error detection.

The role of brain oscillations in feature integration

Our sensory system is able to build a unified perception of the world, which although rich, is limited and inaccurate. Sometimes, features from different objects are erroneously combined. At the neural level, the role of the parietal cortex in feature integration is well-known. However, the brain dynamics underlying correct and incorrect feature integration are less clear. To explore the temporal dynamics of feature integration, we studied the modulation of different frequency bands in trials in which feature integration was correct or incorrect. Participants responded to the color of a shape target, surrounded by distractors. A calibration procedure ensured that accuracy was around 70% in each participant. To explore the role of expectancy in feature integration, we introduced an unexpected feature to the target in the last blocks of trials. Results demonstrated the contribution of several frequency bands to feature integration. Alpha and beta power was reduced for hits compared to illusions. Moreover, gamma power was overall larger during the experiment for participants who were aware of the unexpected target presented during the last blocks of trials (as compared to unaware participants). These results demonstrate that feature integration is a complex process that can go wrong at different stages of information processing and is influenced by top-down expectancies.

Updating the relationship of the Ne/ERN to task-related behavior: A brief review and suggestions for future research

The error negativity/error-related negativity (Ne/ERN) is one of the most well-studied event-related potential (ERP) components in the electroencephalography (EEG) literature. Peaking about 50 ms after the commission of an error, the Ne/ERN is a negative deflection in the ERP waveform that is thought to reflect error processing in the brain. While its relationships to trait constructs such as anxiety are well-documented, there is still little known about how the Ne/ERN may subsequently influence task-related behavior. In other words, does the occurrence of the Ne/ERN trigger any sort of error corrective process, or any other behavioral adaptation to avoid errors? Several theories have emerged to explain how the Ne/ERN may implement or affect behavior on a task, but evidence supporting each has been mixed. In the following manuscript, we review these theories, and then systematically discuss the reasons that there may be discrepancies in the literature. We review both the inherent biological factors of the neural regions that underlie error-processing in the brain, and some of the researcher-induced factors in analytic and experimental choices that may be exacerbating these discrepancies. We end with a table of recommendations for future researchers who aim to understand the relationship between the Ne/ERN and behavior.

A little doubt saves many mistakes: Early and late error detection in copy-typing

Based on internal predictions, action-errors can be detected relatively early. Different kinds of sensory feedback further provide information about the occurrence of errors later on. To investigate the mechanisms underlying error detection in copy-typing, ten-finger-typists and hunt-and-peck-typists copy typed with and without visibility of the screen and keyboard. We expected that error detection evolves in slower typing before, during, and after an error. Results showed that more errors were reported with visible screen than with covered screen in both groups underpinning the importance of distal action-effects for error detection. Importantly, ten-finger-typists showed pre-error-slowing in the inter-keystroke-intervals (IKIs) before reported errors, but hunt-and-peck-typists did not. In both groups, error-slowing was observed in the last IKI before both reported and unreported errors. Hence, internal predictions play a role in error detection in both groups, but in ten-finger-typists, internal models may be more precise, leading to earlier error detection. Alternatively, slowing down may increase the probability of detecting errors. Finally, in both groups post-error-slowing indicates that sensory feedback from performing keystrokes contributes to error detection. In conclusion, feedback from distal action-effects (i.e., the screen), movement related feedback, and predictive mechanisms contribute to error detection in typing.

Executive function during typing on computer

In recent decades, computer typing has become one of the fundamental tools for personal communication in everyday life. Typing is a multi-level hierarchical process that involves a large number of cognitive and physiological functions. Executive functions (EF), such as working memory and executive control, actively influence the inhibitory and activation processes during typing. Using the example of the work of the IF, one can observe the hierarchical organization of the central and peripheral parts of the nervous system during typing. However, there are not so many studies aimed at studying the neurophysiology of typing, and there were no works devoted to the study of EF in typing. In this regard, this article discusses the potential possibilities of studying EF by typing on a computer and provides examples of experiments and models that can be used in such studies. The article also describes the main psychophysiological studies in which typing was involved and a review of methods for studying and analyzing typing was conducted.

A developmental examination of medial frontal theta dynamics and inhibitory control

Medial frontal theta-band oscillations are a robust marker of action-outcome monitoring. In a large developmental sample (n = 432, 9-16 years), we examined whether phase and non-phase locked medial frontal theta power were related to inhibitory control among children and adolescents. Our results showed that the well-established increase in medial frontal theta power during inhibitory control was captured largely by non-phase locked dynamics, which partially mediated the positive effect of age on task performance. A person-centered approach also revealed latent classes of individuals based on their multivariate theta power dynamics (phase locked/non-phase locked, GO/NOGO). The class of individuals showing low phase locked and high non-phase locked medial frontal theta were significantly older, had better inhibitory control, scored higher on measures of general cognitive function, and were more efficient in their behavioural responses. The functional significance of phase and non-phase locked theta dynamics, and their potential changes, could have important implications for action-outcome monitoring and cognitive function in both typical and atypical development, as well as related psychopathology .

Contrasting time and frequency domains: ERN and induced theta oscillations differentially predict post-error behavior

The present study investigated the neural dynamics of error processing in both the time and frequency domains, as well as associated behavioral phenomena, at the single-trial level. We used a technique that enabled us to separately investigate the evoked and induced aspects of the EEG signal (Cohen & Donner, 2013, Journal of Neurophysiology, 110[12], 2752-2763). We found that at the single-trial level, while the (evoked) error-related negativity (ERN) predicted only post-error slowing (PES)-and only when errors occurred on incongruent trials-induced frontal midline theta power served as a robust predictor of both PES and post-error accuracy (PEA) regardless of stimulus congruency. Mediation models of both electrophysiological indices demonstrated that although the relationship between theta and PEA was mediated by PES, there was not a relationship between the ERN and PEA. Our data suggest that although the ERN and frontal midline theta index functionally related underlying cognitive processes, they are not simply the same process manifested in different domains. In addition, our findings are consistent with the adaptive theory of post-error slowing, as PES was positively associated with post-error accuracy at the single-trial level. More generally, our study provides additional support for the inclusion of a time-frequency approach to better understand the role of medial frontal cortex in action monitoring.

Effects of motor restrictions on preparatory brain activity

Modifying established motor skills is a challenging endeavor due to proactive interference from undesired old to desired new actions, calling for high levels of cognitive control. Motor restrictions may facilitate the modification of motor skills by rendering undesired responses physically impossible, thus reducing demands to response inhibition. Here we studied behavioral and EEG effects of rule changes to typing in skilled touch-typists. The respective rule change—typing without using the left index finger—was either implemented per instruction only or with an additional motor restriction. In both groups, the rule change elicited delays and more errors in typing, indicating the occurrence of proactive interference. While stimulus-locked ERPs did not exhibit prominent effects of rule change or group, response-locked ERPs revealed that the time courses of preparatory brain activity preceding typing responses depended on the presence of motor restriction. Although further research is necessary to corroborate our findings, they indicate a novel brain correlate that represents changes in inhibitory response preparation induced by short-term motor restrictions.

Not all errors are alike: modulation of error-related neural responses in musical joint action

During joint action, the sense of agency enables interaction partners to implement corrective and adaptive behaviour in response to performance errors. When agency becomes ambiguous (e.g. when action similarity encourages perceptual self-other overlap), confusion as to who produced what may disrupt this process. The current experiment investigated how ambiguity of agency affects behavioural and neural responses to errors in a joint action domain where self-other overlap is common: musical duos. Pairs of pianists performed piano pieces in synchrony, playing either the same pitches (ambiguous agency) or different pitches (unambiguous agency) while electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded for each individual. Behavioural and event-related potential results showed no effects of the agency manipulation but revealed differences in how distinct error types are processed. Self-produced 'wrong note' errors (substitutions) were left uncorrected, showed post-error slowing and elicited an error-related negativity (ERN) peaking before erroneous keystrokes (pre-ERN). In contrast, self-produced 'extra note' errors (additions) exhibited pre-error slowing, error and post-error speeding, were rapidly corrected and elicited the ERN. Other-produced errors evoked a feedback-related negativity but no behavioural effects. Overall findings shed light upon how the nervous system supports fluent interpersonal coordination in real-time joint action by employing distinct mechanisms to manage different types of errors.

Event-related potential (ERP) measures of error processing as biomarkers of externalizing disorders: A narrative review

Previous studies have shown that electrophysiological measures of error processing are affected in patients at risk or diagnosed with internalizing disorders, hence, suggesting that error processing could be a suitable biomarker for internalizing disorders. In this narrative review, we will evaluate studies that address the role of event-related potential (ERP) measures of error-processing in externalizing disorders and discuss to what extend these can be considered a biomarker for externalizing disorders. Currently, there is evidence for the notion that electrophysiological indices of error processing such as the error-related negativity (ERN) and error positivity (Pe) are reduced in individuals with substance use disorders, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and in forensic populations. However, it remains unclear whether this is also the case for other understudied disorders such as behavioral addiction. Furthermore, to fully understand how these deficits affect day to day behavior, we encourage research to focus on testing current theories and hypotheses of ERN and Pe. In addition, we argue that within an externalizing disorder, individual differences in error processing deficits may be related to prognosis and gender of the patient, methodological issues and presence of comorbidity. Next, we review studies that have related treatment trajectories with ERP measures of error processing, and we discuss the prospect of improving error processing as a treatment option. We conclude that ERP measures of error processing are candidate biomarkers for externalizing disorders, albeit we strongly urge researchers to continue looking into the predictive value of these measures in the etiology and treatment outcome through multi-method and longitudinal designs.

The aversion positivity: Mediofrontal cortical potentials reflect parametric aversive prediction errors and drive behavioral modification following negative reinforcement

Reinforcement learning capitalizes on prediction errors (PEs), representing the deviation of received outcomes from expected outcomes. Mediofrontal event-related potentials (ERPs), in particular the feedback-related negativity (FRN)/reward positivity (RewP), are related to PE signaling, but there is disagreement as to whether the FRN/RewP encode signed or unsigned PEs. PE encoding can potentially be dissected by time-frequency analysis, as frontal theta [4-8 Hz] might represent poor outcomes, while central delta [1-3 Hz] might instead represent rewarding outcomes. However, cortical PE signaling in negative reinforcement is still poorly understood, and the role of cortical PE representations in behavioral reinforcement learning following negative reinforcement is relatively unexplored. We recorded EEG while participants completed a task with matched positive and negative reinforcement outcome modalities, with parametrically manipulated single-trial outcomes producing positive and negative PEs. We first demonstrated that PEs systematically influence future behavior in both positive and negative reinforcement conditions. In negative reinforcement conditions, mediofrontal ERPs positively signaled unsigned PEs in a time window encompassing the P2 potential, and negatively signaled signed PEs for a time window encompassing the FRN/RewP and frontal P3 (an "aversion positivity"). Central delta power increased parametrically with increasingly aversive outcomes, contributing to the "aversion positivity". Finally, negative reinforcement ERPs correlated with RTs on the following trial, suggesting cortical PEs guide behavioral adaptations. Positive reinforcement PEs did not influence ERP or time-frequency activity, despite significant behavioral effects. These results demonstrate that mediofrontal PE signals are a mechanism underlying negative reinforcement learning, and that delta power increases for aversive outcomes might contribute to the "aversion positivity."

Subthreshold error corrections predict adaptive post-error compensations

Relatively little is known about the relation between subthreshold error corrections and post-error behavioral compensations. The present study utilized lateralized beta power, which has been shown to index response preparation, to examine subthreshold error corrections in a task known to produce response conflict, the Simon task. We found that even when an overt correction is not made, greater activation of the corrective response, indexed by beta suppression ipsilateral to the initial responding hand, predicted post-error speeding, and enhanced post-error accuracy at the single-trial level. This provides support for the notion that response conflict associated with errors can be adaptive, and suggests that subthreshold corrections should be taken into account to fully understand error-monitoring processes. Furthermore, we expand on previous findings that demonstrate that post-error slowing and post-error accuracy can be dissociated, as well as findings that suggest that frontal midline theta oscillations and the error-related negativity (ERN) are dissociable neurocognitive processes.

Pre-output Language Monitoring in Sign Production

A domain-general monitoring mechanism is proposed to be involved in overt speech monitoring. This mechanism is reflected in a medial frontal component, the error negativity (Ne), present in both errors and correct trials (Ne-like wave) but larger in errors than correct trials. In overt speech production, this negativity starts to rise before speech onset and is therefore associated with inner speech monitoring. Here, we investigate whether the same monitoring mechanism is involved in sign language production. Twenty deaf signers (American Sign Language [ASL] dominant) and 16 hearing signers (English dominant) participated in a picture-word interference paradigm in ASL. As in previous studies, ASL naming latencies were measured using the keyboard release time. EEG results revealed a medial frontal negativity peaking within 15 msec after keyboard release in the deaf signers. This negativity was larger in errors than correct trials, as previously observed in spoken language production. No clear negativity was present in the hearing signers. In addition, the slope of the Ne was correlated with ASL proficiency (measured by the ASL Sentence Repetition Task) across signers. Our results indicate that a similar medial frontal mechanism is engaged in preoutput language monitoring in sign and spoken language production. These results suggest that the monitoring mechanism reflected by the Ne/Ne-like wave is independent of output modality (i.e., spoken or signed) and likely monitors prearticulatory representations of language. Differences between groups may be linked to several factors including differences in language proficiency or more variable lexical access to motor programming latencies for hearing than deaf signers.

Electrophysiological Correlates of Monitoring in Typing with and without Visual Feedback

New theories of monitoring in language production, regardless of their mechanistic differences, all posit monitoring mechanisms that share general computational principles with action monitoring. This perspective, if accurate, would predict that many electrophysiological signatures of performance monitoring should be recoverable from language production tasks. In this study, we examined both error-related and feedback-related EEG indices of performance monitoring in the context of a typing-to-dictation task. To disentangle the contribution of the external from internal monitoring processes, we created a condition where participants immediately saw the word they typed (the immediate-feedback condition) versus one in which displaying the word was delayed until the end of the trial (the delayed-feedback condition). The removal of immediate visual feedback prompted a stronger reliance on internal monitoring processes, which resulted in lower correction rates and a clear error-related negativity. Compatible with domain-general monitoring views, an error positivity was only recovered under conditions where errors were detected or had a high likelihood of being detected. Examination of the feedback-related indices (feedback-related negativity and frontocentral positivity) revealed a two-stage process of integration of internal and external information. The recovery of a full range of well-established EEG indices of action monitoring in a language production task strongly endorses domain-general views of monitoring. Such indices, in turn, are helpful in understanding how information from different monitoring channels are combined.