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Xin Q, Cheng J, Wang H, Zhang W, Lu H, Zhou J, Lo GV, Dou Y, Yuan S. Modeling the syn-cycle in the light activated opening of the channelrhodopsin-2 ion channel. RSC Adv 2022; 12:6515-6524. [PMID: 35424642 PMCID: PMC8981705 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra08521b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ion channel of channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) is activated by absorbing light. The light stimulates retinal to isomerize to start the photocycle. There are two pathways for photocycles, which are caused by isomerization of the retinal from all-trans, 15-anti to 13-cis, 15-anti in the dark-adapted state (anti-cycle) and from 13-cis, 15-syn to all-trans, 15-syn in the light-adapted state (syn-cycle). In this work, the structure of the syn-cycle intermediate and mechanism of channel opening were studied by molecular dynamics (MD) and steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulations. Due to the lack of crystal structure of intermediates in the syn-cycle of ChR2, the intermediate models were constructed from the homologous intermediates in the anti-cycle. The isomerization of retinal was shown to cause the central gate (CG) hydrogen bond network to rearrange, cutting the link between TM2 and TM7. TM2 is moved by the intrahelical hydrogen bond of E90 and K93, and induced the intracellular gate (ICG) to expand. The ion penetration pathway between TM1, TM2, TM3 and TM7 in the P500* state was observed by MD simulations. However, this channel is not fully opened compared with the homologous P500 state in the anti-cycle. In addition, the protons on Schiff bases were found to be unable to form hydrogen bonds with the counter residues (E123 and D253) in the P500* state, preventing an evolution of the P500* state to a P390-like state in the syn-cycle. Modelling the syn-cycle is a series of operations on the ChR2 crystal structure (PDB ID: 6EID). By replacement and isomerization, we obtained P500* and P480 intermediates. A feasible explanation that no P390* was observed in experiment was inferred.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Xin
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 40065, China
| | - Jie Cheng
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 40065, China
| | - Hongwei Wang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Wenying Zhang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 40065, China
| | - Hong Lu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 40065, China
| | - Junpeng Zhou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 40065, China
| | - Glenn V. Lo
- Department of Chemistry and Physical Sciences, Nicholls State University, P.O. Box 2022, Thibodaux, LA 70310, USA
| | - Yusheng Dou
- Department of Chemistry and Physical Sciences, Nicholls State University, P.O. Box 2022, Thibodaux, LA 70310, USA
| | - Shuai Yuan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Big Data for Bio Intelligence, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Chongqing 40065, China
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BrainPhys neuronal medium optimized for imaging and optogenetics in vitro. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5550. [PMID: 33144563 PMCID: PMC7642238 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19275-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The capabilities of imaging technologies, fluorescent sensors, and optogenetics tools for cell biology are advancing. In parallel, cellular reprogramming and organoid engineering are expanding the use of human neuronal models in vitro. This creates an increasing need for tissue culture conditions better adapted to live-cell imaging. Here, we identify multiple caveats of traditional media when used for live imaging and functional assays on neuronal cultures (i.e., suboptimal fluorescence signals, phototoxicity, and unphysiological neuronal activity). To overcome these issues, we develop a neuromedium called BrainPhys™ Imaging (BPI) in which we optimize the concentrations of fluorescent and phototoxic compounds. BPI is based on the formulation of the original BrainPhys medium. We benchmark available neuronal media and show that BPI enhances fluorescence signals, reduces phototoxicity and optimally supports the electrical and synaptic activity of neurons in culture. We also show the superior capacity of BPI for optogenetics and calcium imaging of human neurons. Altogether, our study shows that BPI improves the quality of a wide range of fluorescence imaging applications with live neurons in vitro while supporting optimal neuronal viability and function. Current media for neuronal cell and organoid cultures are suboptimal for functional imaging and optogenetics experiments, owing to phototoxicity and unphysiological performance. Here the authors formulate an optimised neuronal medium to support live cell imaging and electrophysiological activity.
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Resulaj A, Ruediger S, Olsen SR, Scanziani M. First spikes in visual cortex enable perceptual discrimination. eLife 2018; 7:34044. [PMID: 29659352 PMCID: PMC5902162 DOI: 10.7554/elife.34044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Visually guided perceptual decisions involve the sequential activation of a hierarchy of cortical areas. It has been hypothesized that a brief time window of activity in each area is sufficient to enable the decision but direct measurements of this time window are lacking. To address this question, we develop a visual discrimination task in mice that depends on visual cortex and in which we precisely control the time window of visual cortical activity as the animal performs the task at different levels of difficulty. We show that threshold duration of activity in visual cortex enabling perceptual discrimination is between 40 and 80 milliseconds. During this time window the vast majority of neurons discriminating the stimulus fire one or no spikes and less than 16% fire more than two. This result establishes that the firing of the first visually evoked spikes in visual cortex is sufficient to enable a perceptual decision.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arbora Resulaj
- Center for Neural Circuits and Behavior, Neurobiology Section, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Sarah Ruediger
- Center for Neural Circuits and Behavior, Neurobiology Section, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Shawn R Olsen
- Center for Neural Circuits and Behavior, Neurobiology Section, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Allen Institute for Brain Science, Seattle, United States
| | - Massimo Scanziani
- Center for Neural Circuits and Behavior, Neurobiology Section, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, United States.,Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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Jiao Q, Chen Z, Feng Y, Li S, Jiang S, Li J, Chen Y, Yu T, Kang X, Shen B, Zhang G. The effects of nanocavity and photonic crystal in InGaN/GaN nanorod LED arrays. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2016; 11:340. [PMID: 27440081 PMCID: PMC4954795 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-016-1548-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
InGaN/GaN nanorod light-emitting diode (LED) arrays were fabricated using nanoimprint and reactive ion etching. The diameters of the nanorods range from 120 to 300 nm. The integral photoluminescence (PL) intensity for 120 nm nanorod LED array is enhanced as 13 times compared to that of the planar one. In angular-resolved PL (ARPL) measurements, there are some strong lobes as resonant regime appeared in the far-field radiation patterns of small size nanorod array, in which the PL spectra are sharp and intense. The PL lifetime for resonant regime is 0.088 ns, which is 40 % lower than that of non-resonant regime for 120 nm nanorod LED array. At last, three dimension finite difference time domain (FDTD) simulation is performed. The effects of guided modes coupling in nanocavity and extraction by photonic crystals are explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Jiao
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Zhizhong Chen
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Yulong Feng
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Shunfeng Li
- />Dongguan Institute of Optoelectronics, Peking University, Dongguan, 523808 Guangdong China
| | - Shengxiang Jiang
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Junze Li
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Yifan Chen
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Tongjun Yu
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Xiangning Kang
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Bo Shen
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
| | - Guoyi Zhang
- />State Key Laboratory for Artificial Microstructure and Mesoscopic Physics, School of Physics, Peking University, Haidian, Beijing China
- />Dongguan Institute of Optoelectronics, Peking University, Dongguan, 523808 Guangdong China
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Jiang S, Liu YF, Wang XM, Liu KF, Zhang DH, Li YD, Yu AP, Zhang XH, Zhang JY, Xu JG, Gu YD, Xu WD, Zeng SQ. Automated, highly reproducible, wide-field, light-based cortical mapping method using a commercial stereo microscope and its applications. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2016; 7:3478-3490. [PMID: 27699114 PMCID: PMC5030026 DOI: 10.1364/boe.7.003478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a more flexible optogenetics-based mapping system attached on a stereo microscope, which offers automatic light stimulation to individual regions of interest in the cortex that expresses light-activated channelrhodopsin-2 in vivo. Combining simultaneous recording of electromyography from specific forelimb muscles, we demonstrate that this system offers much better efficiency and precision in mapping distinct domains for controlling limb muscles in the mouse motor cortex. Furthermore, the compact and modular design of the system also yields a simple and flexible implementation to different commercial stereo microscopes, and thus could be widely used among laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Jiang
- Department of Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China; These authors contributed equally to the study and paper
| | - Ya-Feng Liu
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology-Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan, 430074, China; MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China; These authors contributed equally to the study and paper
| | - Xiao-Min Wang
- Department of Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery, Jing'an District Central Hospital, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Ke-Fei Liu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institute for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Ding-Hong Zhang
- Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institute for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China; Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yi-Ding Li
- Institute of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institute for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200031, China; State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Ai-Ping Yu
- Department of Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Xiao-Hui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
| | - Jia-Yi Zhang
- Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China; State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Jian-Guang Xu
- Department of Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China; Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yu-Dong Gu
- Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Wen-Dong Xu
- Department of Hand Surgery, Huashan Hospital, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China; Department of Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery, Jing'an District Central Hospital, Shanghai, 200040, China; State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200031, China;
| | - Shao-Qun Zeng
- Britton Chance Center for Biomedical Photonics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology-Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Wuhan, 430074, China; MoE Key Laboratory for Biomedical Photonics, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China;
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Hoehn M, Aswendt M. Structure-function relationship of cerebral networks in experimental neuroscience: contribution of magnetic resonance imaging. Exp Neurol 2012; 242:65-73. [PMID: 22572591 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Revised: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of neuronal networks, their interactions in resting condition as well as during brain activation have become of great interest for a better understanding of the signal processing of the brain during sensory stimulus or cognitive tasks. Parallel to the study of the functional networks and their dynamics, the underlying network structure is highly important as it provides the basis of the functional interaction. Moreover, under pathological conditions, some nodes in such a net may be impaired and the function of the whole network affected. Mechanisms such as functional deficit and improvement, and plastic reorganization are increasingly discussed in the context of existing structural and functional networks. While many of these aspects have been followed in human and clinical studies, the experimental range is limited for obvious reasons. Here, animal experimental studies are needed as they permit longer scan times and, moreover, comparison with invasive histology. Experimental non-invasive imaging modalities are now able to perform impressive contributions. In this review we try to highlight most recent new cutting-edge developments and applications in experimental neuroscience of functional and structural networks of the brain, relying on non-invasive imaging. We focus primarily on the potential of experimental Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), but also touch upon micro positron emission tomography (μPET) and optical imaging developments where they are applicable to the topic of the present review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Hoehn
- In-vivo-NMR Laboratory, Max Planck Institute for Neurological Research, Cologne, Germany.
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Neveu P, Sinha DK, Kettunen P, Vriz S, Jullien L, Bensimon D. Single Cell Physiology. SINGLE MOLECULE SPECTROSCOPY IN CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS AND BIOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-02597-6_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Zhao Y, Larimer P, Pressler RT, Strowbridge BW, Burda C. Wireless activation of neurons in brain slices using nanostructured semiconductor photoelectrodes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009; 48:2407-10. [PMID: 19219886 DOI: 10.1002/anie.200806093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Light rather than electrical current: The inner or outer surfaces of glass micropipettes can be coated with nanoparticles of a narrow-band-gap semiconductor. When visible or near-infrared light is used for excitation, these micropipettes (labeled PE Stim in the image) can activate nearby neurons (labeled *) in brain tissue without the damage associated with electrical stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Zhao
- Center for Chemical Dynamics and Nanomaterials Research, Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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Nikolic K, Grossman N, Grubb MS, Burrone J, Toumazou C, Degenaar P. Photocycles of channelrhodopsin-2. Photochem Photobiol 2009; 85:400-11. [PMID: 19161406 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2008.00460.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Recent developments have used light-activated channels or transporters to modulate neuronal activity. One such genetically-encoded modulator of activity, channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), depolarizes neurons in response to blue light. In this work, we first conducted electrophysiological studies of the photokinetics of hippocampal cells expressing ChR2, for various light stimulations. These and other experimental results were then used for systematic investigation of the previously proposed three-state and four-state models of the ChR2 photocycle. We show the limitations of the previously suggested three-state models and identify a four-state model that accurately follows the ChR2 photocurrents. We find that ChR2 currents decay biexponentially, a fact that can be explained by the four-state model. The model is composed of two closed (C1 and C2) and two open (O1 and O2) states, and our simulation results suggest that they might represent the dark-adapted (C1-O1) and light-adapted (C2-O2) branches. The crucial insight provided by the analysis of the new model is that it reveals an adaptation mechanism of the ChR2 molecule. Hence very simple organisms expressing ChR2 can use this form of light adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Nikolic
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Zhao Y, Larimer P, Pressler R, Strowbridge B, Burda C. Wireless Activation of Neurons in Brain Slices Using Nanostructured Semiconductor Photoelectrodes. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200806093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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12
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Welinder PE, Burak Y, Fiete IR. Grid cells: the position code, neural network models of activity, and the problem of learning. Hippocampus 2009; 18:1283-300. [PMID: 19021263 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We review progress on the modeling and theoretical fronts in the quest to unravel the computational properties of the grid cell code and to explain the mechanisms underlying grid cell dynamics. The goals of the review are to outline a coherent framework for understanding the dynamics of grid cells and their representation of space; to critically present and draw contrasts between recurrent network models of grid cells based on continuous attractor dynamics and independent-neuron models based on temporal interference; and to suggest open questions for experiment and theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter E Welinder
- Computation and Neural Systems, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
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Estimation of the available free energy in a LOV2-J alpha photoswitch. Nat Chem Biol 2008; 4:491-7. [PMID: 18604202 DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Accepted: 06/13/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Protein photosensors are versatile tools for studying ligand-regulated allostery and signaling. Fundamental to these processes is the amount of energy that can be provided by a photosensor to control downstream signaling events. Such regulation is exemplified by the phototropins--plant serine/threonine kinases that are activated by blue light via conserved LOV (light, oxygen and voltage) domains. The core photosensor of oat phototropin 1 is a LOV domain that interacts in a light-dependent fashion with an adjacent alpha-helix (J alpha) to control kinase activity. We used solution NMR measurements to quantify the free energy of the LOV domain-J alpha-helix binding equilibrium in the dark and lit states. These data indicate that light shifts this equilibrium by approximately 3.8 kcal mol(-1), thus quantifying the energy available through LOV-J alpha for light-driven allosteric regulation. This study provides insight into the energetics of light sensing by phototropins and benchmark values for engineering photoswitchable systems based on the LOV-J alpha interaction.
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Ernst OP, Murcia PAS, Daldrop P, Tsunoda SP, Kateriya S, Hegemann P. Photoactivation of Channelrhodopsin. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:1637-1643. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m708039200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Zhang F, Aravanis AM, Adamantidis A, de Lecea L, Deisseroth K. Circuit-breakers: optical technologies for probing neural signals and systems. Nat Rev Neurosci 2007; 8:577-81. [PMID: 17643087 DOI: 10.1038/nrn2192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 523] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric disorders, which arise from a combination of genetic, epigenetic and environmental influences, epitomize the challenges faced in understanding the mammalian brain. Elucidation and treatment of these diseases will benefit from understanding how specific brain cell types are interconnected and signal in neural circuits. Newly developed neuroengineering tools based on two microbial opsins, channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) and halorhodopsin (NpHR), enable the investigation of neural circuit function with cell-type-specific, temporally accurate and reversible neuromodulation. These tools could lead to the development of precise neuromodulation technologies for animal models of disease and clinical neuropsychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering, W083 Clark Center, 318 Campus Drive West, Stanford University, California, USA
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