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Gómez-Moreno A, San Sebastian E, Moya J, Gomollón-Zueco P, Isola S, Vales Á, González-Aseguinolaza G, Unzu C, Garaigorta U. Topoisomerase Inhibitors Increase Episomal DNA Expression by Inducing the Integration of Episomal DNA in Hepatic Cells. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2459. [PMID: 37896219 PMCID: PMC10610421 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15102459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Gene therapy is a promising strategy to treat and cure most inherited metabolic liver disorders. Viral vectors such as those based on adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) and lentiviruses (LVs) are used as vehicles to deliver functional genes to affected hepatocytes. Adverse events associated with the use of high vector doses have motivated the use of small molecules as adjuvants to reduce the dose. In this study, we showed that a one-hour treatment with topoisomerase inhibitors (camptothecin and etoposide) prior to viral transduction is enough to increase AAV and LV reporter expression in non-dividing hepatic cells in culture. Topoisomerase inhibitors increased both integration-competent (ICLV) and integration-deficient (IDLV) LV-derived expression, with a much stronger increase in the IDLV transduction system. In agreement with that, topoisomerase inhibitors increased viral genome integration in both strains, with a greater impact on the IDLV strain, supporting the idea that topoisomerase inhibitors increased episomal DNA integration, especially when viral integrase activity is abolished. These effects correlated with an increase in the DNA damage response produced by the treatments. Our study highlights the need to monitor DNA damage and undesired integration of viral episomal DNAs into the host genome when studying chemical compounds that increase viral transduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andoni Gómez-Moreno
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Celular, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Calle Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (E.S.S.); (J.M.); (P.G.-Z.)
| | - Enara San Sebastian
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Celular, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Calle Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (E.S.S.); (J.M.); (P.G.-Z.)
| | - Jennifer Moya
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Celular, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Calle Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (E.S.S.); (J.M.); (P.G.-Z.)
| | - Pilar Gomollón-Zueco
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Celular, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Calle Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (E.S.S.); (J.M.); (P.G.-Z.)
| | - Sergio Isola
- DNA & RNA Medicine Division, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Avda Pio XII, 55, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (S.I.); (Á.V.); (G.G.-A.); (C.U.)
| | - África Vales
- DNA & RNA Medicine Division, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Avda Pio XII, 55, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (S.I.); (Á.V.); (G.G.-A.); (C.U.)
| | - Gloria González-Aseguinolaza
- DNA & RNA Medicine Division, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Avda Pio XII, 55, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (S.I.); (Á.V.); (G.G.-A.); (C.U.)
| | - Carmen Unzu
- DNA & RNA Medicine Division, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Avda Pio XII, 55, 31008 Pamplona, Spain; (S.I.); (Á.V.); (G.G.-A.); (C.U.)
| | - Urtzi Garaigorta
- Departamento de Biología Molecular y Celular, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CNB-CSIC), Calle Darwin 3, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (E.S.S.); (J.M.); (P.G.-Z.)
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2
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Ahmadi SE, Shabestari RM, kojabad AA, Safa M. A straightforward microfluidic-based approach toward optimizing transduction efficiency of HIV-1-derived lentiviral vectors in BCP-ALL cells. BIOTECHNOLOGY REPORTS (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 38:e00792. [PMID: 36950261 PMCID: PMC10025989 DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2023.e00792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2023]
Abstract
Background HIV-1-derived lentiviral vectors (LVs) are capable of transducing human cells by integrating the transgene into the host genome. In order to do that, LVs should have enough time and space to interact with the surface of the target cells. Herein, we used a microfluidic system to facilitate the transduction of BCP-ALL cells. Methods and Results We used a SU-8 mold to fabricate a PDMS microfluidic chip containing three channels with a 50 μm height and a surface matching 96-well plates. In order to produce LVs, we used HEK293T cells to package the second generation of LVs. First, we evaluated the cell recovery from the microfluidic chip. Cell recovery assessment showcased that 3 h and 6 h of incubation in microfluidic channels containing 100,000 NALM-6 (BCP-ALL) cells with 2μL of culture media yielded 87±7.2% and 80.6 ± 10% of cell recovery, respectively. Afterward, the effects of LV-induced toxicity were evaluated using 10-30% LV concentrations in time frames ranging from 3 h to 24 h. In 96-well plates, it took 12-24 h for the viruses with 20% and 30% concentrations to affect the cell survival significantly. These effects were intensified in the microfluidic system implying that microfluidic is capable of enhancing LV transduction. Based on the evidence of cell recovery and cell survival we chose 6 h of incubation with 20% LV. Conclusion The results from EGFP expression showcased that a microfluidic system could increase the LV transduction in BCP-ALL cells by almost 9-folds. All in all, the microfluidic system seems to be a great armamentarium in optimizing LV-based transduction.
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3
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Beck H, Härter M, Haß B, Schmeck C, Baerfacker L. Small molecules and their impact in drug discovery: A perspective on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of the Bayer Chemical Research Laboratory. Drug Discov Today 2022; 27:1560-1574. [PMID: 35202802 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2022.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The year 2021 marks the 125th anniversary of the Bayer Chemical Research Laboratory in Wuppertal, Germany. A significant number of prominent small-molecule drugs, from aspirin to Xarelto, have emerged from this research site. In this review, we shed light on historic cornerstones of small-molecule drug research, discussing current and future trends in drug discovery as well as providing a personal outlook on the future of drug research with a focus on small molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hartmut Beck
- Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany.
| | - Michael Härter
- Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Bastian Haß
- Digital & Commercial Innovation, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carsten Schmeck
- Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Lars Baerfacker
- Research & Development, Pharmaceuticals, Bayer AG, Wuppertal, Germany
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4
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Stem C, Rodman C, Ramamurthy RM, George S, Meares D, Farland A, Atala A, Doering CB, Spencer HT, Porada CD, Almeida-Porada G. Investigating Optimal Autologous Cellular Platforms for Prenatal or Perinatal Factor VIII Delivery to Treat Hemophilia A. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:678117. [PMID: 34447745 PMCID: PMC8383113 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.678117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with the severe form of hemophilia A (HA) present with a severe phenotype, and can suffer from life-threatening, spontaneous hemorrhaging. While prophylactic FVIII infusions have revolutionized the clinical management of HA, this treatment is short-lived, expensive, and it is not available to many A patients worldwide. In the present study, we evaluated a panel of readily available cell types for their suitability as cellular vehicles to deliver long-lasting FVIII replacement following transduction with a retroviral vector encoding a B domain-deleted human F8 transgene. Given the immune hurdles that currently plague factor replacement therapy, we focused our investigation on cell types that we deemed to be most relevant to either prenatal or very early postnatal treatment and that could, ideally, be autologously derived. Our findings identify several promising candidates for use as cell-based FVIII delivery vehicles and lay the groundwork for future mechanistic studies to delineate bottlenecks to efficient production and secretion of FVIII following genetic-modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Stem
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Christopher Rodman
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Ritu M. Ramamurthy
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Sunil George
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Diane Meares
- Special Hematology Laboratory, Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Andrew Farland
- Special Hematology Laboratory, Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Anthony Atala
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Christopher B. Doering
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - H. Trent Spencer
- Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Christopher D. Porada
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
| | - Graça Almeida-Porada
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Fetal Research and Therapy Program, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
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5
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Takushi SE, Paik NY, Fedanov A, Prince C, Doering CB, Spencer HT, Chandrakasan S. Lentiviral Gene Therapy for Familial Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis Type 3, Caused by UNC13D Genetic Defects. Hum Gene Ther 2021; 31:626-638. [PMID: 32253931 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2019.329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis type 3 (FHL3) is a rare disease caused by mutations to the UNC13D gene and the subsequent absence or decreased activity of the Munc13-4 protein. Munc13-4 is essential for the exocytosis of perforin and granzyme containing granules from cytotoxic cells. Without it, these cells are able to recognize an immunological insult but are unable to execute their cytotoxic functions. The result is a hyperinflammatory state that, if left untreated, is fatal. At present, the only curative treatment is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), but eligibility and response to this treatment are largely dependent on the ability to control inflammation before HSCT. In this study, we describe an optimized lentiviral vector that can restore Munc13-4 expression and degranulation capacity in both transduced FHL3 patient T cells and transduced hematopoietic stem cells from the FHL3 (Jinx) disease model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Takushi
- Department of Immunology and Molecular Pathogenesis, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Na Yoon Paik
- Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Andrew Fedanov
- Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Chengyu Prince
- Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Christopher B Doering
- Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - H Trent Spencer
- Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Shanmuganathan Chandrakasan
- Cell and Gene Therapy Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.,Bone Marrow Transplant Program, Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
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6
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Gong Y, Klein Wolterink RGJ, Wang J, Bos GMJ, Germeraad WTV. Chimeric antigen receptor natural killer (CAR-NK) cell design and engineering for cancer therapy. J Hematol Oncol 2021; 14:73. [PMID: 33933160 PMCID: PMC8088725 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-021-01083-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their efficient recognition and lysis of malignant cells, natural killer (NK) cells are considered as specialized immune cells that can be genetically modified to obtain capable effector cells for adoptive cellular treatment of cancer patients. However, biological and technical hurdles related to gene delivery into NK cells have dramatically restrained progress. Recent technological advancements, including improved cell expansion techniques, chimeric antigen receptors (CAR), CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing and enhanced viral transduction and electroporation, have endowed comprehensive generation and characterization of genetically modified NK cells. These promising developments assist scientists and physicians to design better applications of NK cells in clinical therapy. Notably, redirecting NK cells using CARs holds important promise for cancer immunotherapy. Various preclinical and a limited number of clinical studies using CAR-NK cells show promising results: efficient elimination of target cells without side effects, such as cytokine release syndrome and neurotoxicity which are seen in CAR-T therapies. In this review, we focus on the details of CAR-NK technology, including the design of efficient and safe CAR constructs and associated NK cell engineering techniques: the vehicles to deliver the CAR-containing transgene, detection methods for CARs, as well as NK cell sources and NK cell expansion. We summarize the current CAR-NK cell literature and include valuable lessons learned from the CAR-T cell field. This review also provides an outlook on how these approaches may transform current clinical products and protocols for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Gong
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Roel G J Klein Wolterink
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Jianxiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Institute of Hematology and Blood Diseases Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 288 Nanjing Road, Tianjin, 300020, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Blood Diseases, Institute of Hematology and Blood Diseases Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, 288 Nanjing Road, Tianjin, 300020, China
| | - Gerard M J Bos
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.,CiMaas BV, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Wilfred T V Germeraad
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands. .,GROW - School for Oncology and Developmental Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands. .,CiMaas BV, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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7
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Brayshaw LL, Martinez-Fleites C, Athanasopoulos T, Southgate T, Jespers L, Herring C. The role of small molecules in cell and gene therapy. RSC Med Chem 2021; 12:330-352. [PMID: 34046619 PMCID: PMC8130622 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00221f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell and gene therapies have achieved impressive results in the treatment of rare genetic diseases using gene corrected stem cells and haematological cancers using chimeric antigen receptor T cells. However, these two fields face significant challenges such as demonstrating long-term efficacy and safety, and achieving cost-effective, scalable manufacturing processes. The use of small molecules is a key approach to overcome these barriers and can benefit cell and gene therapies at multiple stages of their lifecycle. For example, small molecules can be used to optimise viral vector production during manufacturing or used in the clinic to enhance the resistance of T cell therapies to the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment. Here, we review current uses of small molecules in cell and gene therapy and highlight opportunities for medicinal chemists to further consolidate the success of cell and gene therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lewis L Brayshaw
- Cell & Gene Therapy Discovery Research, Medicinal Science & Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre Gunnels Wood Road Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | - Carlos Martinez-Fleites
- Protein Degradation Group, Medicinal Science & Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre Gunnels Wood Road Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | - Takis Athanasopoulos
- Cell & Gene Therapy Discovery Research, Medicinal Science & Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre Gunnels Wood Road Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | - Thomas Southgate
- Cell & Gene Therapy Discovery Research, Medicinal Science & Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre Gunnels Wood Road Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | - Laurent Jespers
- Cell & Gene Therapy Discovery Research, Medicinal Science & Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre Gunnels Wood Road Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
| | - Christopher Herring
- Cell & Gene Therapy Discovery Research, Medicinal Science & Technology, GlaxoSmithKline Medicines Research Centre Gunnels Wood Road Stevenage SG1 2NY UK
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8
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Abstract
Therapeutic viral gene delivery is an emerging technology which aims to correct genetic mutations by introducing new genetic information to cells either to correct a faulty gene or to initiate cell death in oncolytic treatments. In recent years, significant scientific progress has led to several clinical trials resulting in the approval of gene therapies for human treatment. However, successful therapies remain limited due to a number of challenges such as inefficient cell uptake, low transduction efficiency (TE), limited tropism, liver toxicity and immune response. To adress these issues and increase the number of available therapies, additives from a broad range of materials like polymers, peptides, lipids, nanoparticles, and small molecules have been applied so far. The scope of this review is to highlight these selected delivery systems from a materials perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kübra Kaygisiz
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
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9
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Ellinger B, Pohlmann D, Woens J, Jäkel FM, Reinshagen J, Stocking C, Prassolov VS, Fehse B, Riecken K. A High-Throughput HIV-1 Drug Screening Platform, Based on Lentiviral Vectors and Compatible with Biosafety Level-1. Viruses 2020; 12:E580. [PMID: 32466195 PMCID: PMC7290285 DOI: 10.3390/v12050580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 infection is a complex, multi-step process involving not only viral, but also multiple cellular factors. To date, drug discovery methods have primarily focused on the inhibition of single viral proteins. We present an efficient and unbiased approach, compatible with biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) conditions, to identify inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcription, intracellular trafficking, nuclear entry and genome integration. Starting with a fluorescent assay setup, we systematically improved the screening methodology in terms of stability, efficiency and pharmacological relevance. Stability and throughput were optimized by switching to a luciferase-based readout. BSL-1 compliance was achieved without sacrificing pharmacological relevance by using lentiviral particles pseudo-typed with the mouse ecotropic envelope protein to transduce human PM1 T cells gene-modified to express the corresponding murine receptor. The cellular assay was used to screen 26,048 compounds selected for maximum diversity from a 200,640-compound in-house library. This yielded z' values greater than 0.8 with a hit rate of 3.3% and a confirmation rate of 50%. We selected 93 hits and enriched the collection with 279 similar compounds from the in-house library to identify promising structural features. The most active compounds were validated using orthogonal assay formats. The similarity of the compound profiles across the different platforms demonstrated that the reported lentiviral assay system is a robust and versatile tool for the identification of novel HIV-1 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Ellinger
- Department ScreeningPort, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, 22525 Hamburg, Germany; (B.E.); (J.R.)
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases CIMD, Partner site Hamburg, 22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Daniel Pohlmann
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (D.P.); (J.W.); (F.M.J.); (C.S.)
| | - Jannis Woens
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (D.P.); (J.W.); (F.M.J.); (C.S.)
| | - Felix M. Jäkel
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (D.P.); (J.W.); (F.M.J.); (C.S.)
| | - Jeanette Reinshagen
- Department ScreeningPort, Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME, 22525 Hamburg, Germany; (B.E.); (J.R.)
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases CIMD, Partner site Hamburg, 22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Carol Stocking
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (D.P.); (J.W.); (F.M.J.); (C.S.)
- Heinrich-Pette-Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Vladimir S. Prassolov
- Engelhardt-Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 117984 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Boris Fehse
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (D.P.); (J.W.); (F.M.J.); (C.S.)
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hamburg, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kristoffer Riecken
- Research Department Cell and Gene Therapy, Department of Stem Cell Transplantation, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf (UKE), 20246 Hamburg, Germany; (D.P.); (J.W.); (F.M.J.); (C.S.)
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10
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Rosuvastatin Enhances VSV-G Lentiviral Transduction of NK Cells via Upregulation of the Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2020; 17:634-646. [PMID: 32300610 PMCID: PMC7150439 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2020.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Adoptive natural killer (NK) cell therapy is attaining promising clinical outcomes in recent years, but improvements are needed. Genetic modification of NK cells with a tumor antigen-specific receptor on their surface coupled to intracellular signaling domains may lead to enhanced cytotoxicity against malignant cells. One of the most common approaches is by lentivirus-mediated transduction. However, NK cells are difficult to transduce and various methods have been attempted with different success rates. Because the low-density lipoprotein-receptor (LDLR) is the receptor of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and is expressed only at low levels on NK cells, we tested the potential of 5 statins and 5 non-statin compounds to increase the LDLR expression, thereby facilitating viral transduction. We found that the transduction efficiency of VSV-G pseudotyped lentivirus is augmented by statins that induced higher LDLR expression. In both NK-92 cells and primary NK cells, the transduction efficiency increased after treatment with statins. Furthermore, statins have been reported to suppress NK cell cytotoxicity; however, we showed that this can be completely reversed by adding geranylgeranyl-pyrophosphate (GGPP). Among the statins tested, we found that the combination of rosuvastatin with GGPP most potently improved viral transduction without affecting the cytotoxic properties of the NK cells.
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11
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Zheng Q, Zhang X, Yang H, Xie J, Xie Y, Chen J, Yu C, Zhong C. Internal Ribosome Entry Site Dramatically Reduces Transgene Expression in Hematopoietic Cells in a Position-Dependent Manner. Viruses 2019; 11:v11100920. [PMID: 31597367 PMCID: PMC6833044 DOI: 10.3390/v11100920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Revised: 09/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bicistronic transgene expression mediated by internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements has been widely used. It co-expresses heterologous transgene products from a message RNA driven by a single promoter. Hematologic gene delivery is a promising treatment for both inherited and acquired diseases. A combined strategy was recently documented for potential genome editing in hematopoietic cells. A transduction efficiency exceeding ~90% can be achieved by capsid-optimized recombinant adeno-associated virus serotype 6 (rAAV6) vectors. In this study, to deliver an encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) IRES-containing rAAV6 genome into hematopoietic cells, we observed that EMCV IRES almost completely shut down the transgene expression during the process of mRNA–protein transition. In addition, position-dependent behavior was observed, in which only the EMCV IRES element located between a promoter and the transgenes had an inhibitory effect. Although further studies are warranted to evaluate the involvement of cellular translation machinery, our results propose the use of specific IRES elements or an alternative strategy, such as the 2A system, to achieve bicistronic transgene expression in hematopoietic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingyun Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
| | - Xueyan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
| | - Hua Yang
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
- Department of Radiology, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China.
| | - Jinyan Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
| | - Yilin Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
| | - Jinzhong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
- Yeda Research Institute of Gene and Cell Therapy, Taizhou, Zhejiang 318000, China.
| | - Chenghui Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
- Yeda Research Institute of Gene and Cell Therapy, Taizhou, Zhejiang 318000, China.
| | - Chen Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
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12
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Improvement of K562 Cell Line Transduction by FBS Mediated Attachment to the Cell Culture Plate. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:9540702. [PMID: 31032368 PMCID: PMC6457364 DOI: 10.1155/2019/9540702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Lentiviral vectors have been used for gene therapy in the clinical phase in recent years. These vectors provide a tool for gene insertion, deletion, or modification in organisms. The K562 human cell line has been used extensively in hematopoietic research. Despite its broad application, it is hard-to-transfection and transduction. So, this study presents a simple method to increase the transduction efficiency of K562 cells with a low multiplicity of infection (MOI) of the virus particle. For this purpose, 24-well plate was coated by 300 μl fetal bovine serum (FBS) before seeding. Then 2×104 K562 cells were seeded in each FBS coated plate. After 24h, K562 cells were attached and doubled. Different amount of lentivirus-based GFP vector according to MOI (5, 10, 15, and 20) along with 8 μg polybrene was added to the attached K562 cells and after 6h cells and viral particle complex were spinfected. Then cells were returned to the plate and incubated in 37°C overnight. After 48h transduction efficiency was established by measuring the GFP-expressing cells by flow cytometry. Flow cytometry analysis showed that, after plate treatment by FBS, 64.5% transduction rate in K562 cells was achieved at MOI=20. Therefore, this method can be an effective and simple way to increase the lentiviral transduction rate for suspended cells such as K562.
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13
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Target-Cell-Directed Bioengineering Approaches for Gene Therapy of Hemophilia A. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2018; 9:57-69. [PMID: 29552578 PMCID: PMC5852392 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtm.2018.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Potency is a key optimization parameter for hemophilia A gene therapy product candidates. Optimization strategies include promoter engineering to increase transcription, codon optimization of mRNA to improve translation, and amino-acid substitution to promote secretion. Herein, we describe both rational and empirical design approaches to the development of a minimally sized, highly potent AAV-fVIII vector that incorporates three unique elements: a liver-directed 146-nt transcription regulatory module, a target-cell-specific codon optimization algorithm, and a high-expression bioengineered fVIII variant. The minimal synthetic promoter allows for the smallest AAV-fVIII vector genome known at 4,832 nt, while the tissue-directed codon optimization strategy facilitates increased fVIII transgene product expression in target cell types, e.g., hepatocytes, over traditional genome-level codon optimization strategies. As a tertiary approach, we incorporated ancient and orthologous fVIII sequence elements previously shown to facilitate improved biosynthesis through post-translational mechanisms. Together, these technologies contribute to an AAV-fVIII vector that confers sustained, curative levels of fVIII at a minimal dose in hemophilia A mice. Moreover, the first two technologies should be generalizable to all liver-directed gene therapy vector designs.
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14
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Tran R, Myers DR, Denning G, Shields JE, Lytle AM, Alrowais H, Qiu Y, Sakurai Y, Li WC, Brand O, Le Doux JM, Spencer HT, Doering CB, Lam WA. Microfluidic Transduction Harnesses Mass Transport Principles to Enhance Gene Transfer Efficiency. Mol Ther 2017; 25:2372-2382. [PMID: 28780274 PMCID: PMC5628863 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2017.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 07/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ex vivo gene therapy using lentiviral vectors (LVs) is a proven approach to treat and potentially cure many hematologic disorders and malignancies but remains stymied by cumbersome, cost-prohibitive, and scale-limited production processes that cannot meet the demands of current clinical protocols for widespread clinical utilization. However, limitations in LV manufacture coupled with inefficient transduction protocols requiring significant excess amounts of vector currently limit widespread implementation. Herein, we describe a microfluidic, mass transport-based approach that overcomes the diffusion limitations of current transduction platforms to enhance LV gene transfer kinetics and efficiency. This novel ex vivo LV transduction platform is flexible in design, easy to use, scalable, and compatible with standard cell transduction reagents and LV preparations. Using hematopoietic cell lines, primary human T cells, primary hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) of both murine (Sca-1+) and human (CD34+) origin, microfluidic transduction using clinically processed LVs occurs up to 5-fold faster and requires as little as one-twentieth of LV. As an in vivo validation of the microfluidic-based transduction technology, HSPC gene therapy was performed in hemophilia A mice using limiting amounts of LV. Compared to the standard static well-based transduction protocols, only animals transplanted with microfluidic-transduced cells displayed clotting levels restored to normal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reginald Tran
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - David R Myers
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | | | - Jordan E Shields
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Allison M Lytle
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Graduate Program in Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Hommood Alrowais
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Yongzhi Qiu
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Yumiko Sakurai
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - William C Li
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Oliver Brand
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Joseph M Le Doux
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - H Trent Spencer
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Graduate Program in Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Christopher B Doering
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Graduate Program in Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Wilbur A Lam
- Division of Pediatric Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Aflac Cancer Center and Blood Disorders Service of Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA.
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15
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Ling C, Bhukhai K, Yin Z, Tan M, Yoder MC, Leboulch P, Payen E, Srivastava A. High-Efficiency Transduction of Primary Human Hematopoietic Stem/Progenitor Cells by AAV6 Vectors: Strategies for Overcoming Donor-Variation and Implications in Genome Editing. Sci Rep 2016; 6:35495. [PMID: 27759036 PMCID: PMC5069717 DOI: 10.1038/srep35495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We have reported that of the 10 commonly used AAV serotype vectors, AAV6 is the most efficient in transducing primary human hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs). However, the transduction efficiency of the wild-type (WT) AAV6 vector varies greatly in HSPCs from different donors. Here we report two distinct strategies to further increase the transduction efficiency in HSPCs from donors that are transduced less efficiently with the WT AAV6 vectors. The first strategy involved modifications of the viral capsid proteins where specific surface-exposed tyrosine (Y) and threonine (T) residues were mutagenized to generate a triple-mutant (Y705 + Y731F + T492V) AAV6 vector. The second strategy involved the use of ex vivo transduction at high cell density. The combined use of these strategies resulted in transduction efficiency exceeding ~90% in HSPCs at significantly reduced vector doses. Our studies have significant implications in the optimal use of capsid-optimized AAV6 vectors in genome editing in HSPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Ling
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Powell Gene Therapy Center; University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Kanit Bhukhai
- CEA/Paris Sud University (UMR-E 007), Institute of Emerging Diseases and Innovative Therapies (iMETI), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Zifei Yin
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Powell Gene Therapy Center; University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengqun Tan
- Department of Physiology, Xiang-Ya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Mervin C Yoder
- Herman B Well Center for Pediatrics Research, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Philippe Leboulch
- CEA/Paris Sud University (UMR-E 007), Institute of Emerging Diseases and Innovative Therapies (iMETI), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Emmanuel Payen
- CEA/Paris Sud University (UMR-E 007), Institute of Emerging Diseases and Innovative Therapies (iMETI), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Arun Srivastava
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Therapy, Department of Pediatrics, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Powell Gene Therapy Center; University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Department of Molecular Genetics &Microbiology; University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Role of the mammalian target of rapamycin pathway in lentiviral vector transduction of hematopoietic stem cells. Curr Opin Hematol 2016; 22:302-8. [PMID: 26049750 DOI: 10.1097/moh.0000000000000150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW A major goal in repopulating hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) gene therapies is achieving high-efficacy gene transfer, while maintaining robust HSC engraftment and differentiation in vivo. Recent studies have documented that rapamycin treatment of HSC during lentiviral vector transduction enhances gene transfer to human and mouse HSCs and maintains engraftment capacity. In this review, we place into context the role of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathways in HSC quiescence and function, endocytic regulation, and lentiviral gene delivery. RECENT FINDINGS Lentiviral vector transduction of human and mouse HSCs is considerably enhanced by rapamycin treatment. Furthermore, rapamycin preserves long-term engraftment of human and mouse HSCs. Investigations of cellular mechanisms that contribute to increased transduction in HSCs uncover a role for mTOR inhibition-dependent activation of endocytosis. SUMMARY Rapamycin enhances lentiviral vector transduction of HSCs through regulation of endocytic activity via mTOR inhibition. An important attribute of rapamycin treatment during transduction is the preservation of HSC function, allowing reconstitution of long-term hematopoiesis in vivo in murine models.
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Effects of FVIII immunity on hepatocyte and hematopoietic stem cell-directed gene therapy of murine hemophilia A. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2016; 3:15056. [PMID: 26909355 PMCID: PMC4750467 DOI: 10.1038/mtm.2015.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/11/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Immune responses to coagulation factors VIII (FVIII) and IX (FIX) represent primary obstacles to hemophilia treatment. Previously, we showed that hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) retroviral gene therapy induces immune nonresponsiveness to FVIII in both naive and preimmunized murine hemophilia A settings. Liver-directed adeno-associated viral (AAV)-FIX vector gene transfer achieved similar results in preclinical hemophilia B models. However, as clinical immune responses to FVIII and FIX differ, we investigated the ability of liver-directed AAV-FVIII gene therapy to affect FVIII immunity in hemophilia A mice. Both FVIII naive and preimmunized mice were administered recombinant AAV8 encoding a liver-directed bioengineered FVIII expression cassette. Naive animals receiving high or mid-doses subsequently achieved near normal FVIII activity levels. However, challenge with adjuvant-free recombinant FVIII induced loss of FVIII activity and anti-FVIII antibodies in mid-dose, but not high-dose AAV or HSC lentiviral (LV) vector gene therapy cohorts. Furthermore, unlike what was shown previously for FIX gene transfer, AAV-FVIII administration to hemophilia A inhibitor mice conferred no effect on anti-FVIII antibody or inhibitory titers. These data suggest that functional differences exist in the immune modulation achieved to FVIII or FIX in hemophilia mice by gene therapy approaches incorporating liver-directed AAV vectors or HSC-directed LV.
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Retrovirus-based vectors for transient and permanent cell modification. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2015; 24:135-46. [PMID: 26433198 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2015.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Retroviral vectors are commonly employed for long-term transgene expression via integrating vector technology. However, three alternative retrovirus-based platforms are currently available that allow transient cell modification. Gene expression can be mediated from either episomal DNA or RNA templates, or selected proteins can be directly transferred through retroviral nanoparticles. The different technologies are functionally graded with respect to safety, expression magnitude and expression duration. Improvement of the initial technologies, including modification of vector designs, targeted increase in expression strength and duration as well as improved safety characteristics, has allowed maturation of retroviral systems into efficient and promising tools that meet the technological demands of a wide variety of potential application areas.
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