Tissue expression, structure and function of the murine Ly-6 family of molecules

Induction of LY6E regulates interleukin-1β production, potentially contributing to the immunopathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the deposition of immune complexes (ICs) in various organs, especially the kidney, leading to lupus nephritis, one of the major and therapeutically challenging manifestations of SLE. Among the various cytokines induced in SLE, type I interferons (IFN-Is) play crucial roles in mediating immunopathogenesis, and anti-IFN-I treatment has been approved for SLE treatment. The uptake of ICs by macrophages results in macrophage activation, which initiates, triggers, and exaggerates immune responses in SLE. After observing the induction of an IFN-stimulated gene, LY6E, in monocytes from SLE patients, we demonstrated the colocalization of both LY6E and a macrophage marker in kidneys from pristane-induced lupus-prone mice and from patients with lupus nephritis. By studying mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages, we showed that LY6E regulated IFN-α- and IC-induced production and secretion of mature interleukin-1β (mIL-1β), foam cell formation and several mitochondria-associated mechanisms, such as the release of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) but not mitochondrial RNA (mtRNA) into the cytosol, the generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) and ROS, the activation of caspase 1, NLRP3, and the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway, and the activation of cytidine/uridine monophosphate kinase 2 (CMPK2), which were involved in LY6E-mediated immunomodulatory effects. In addition, synergistic effects of a combination of IL-1β and IFN-α and of IL-1β and ICs on the induction of the expression of IFN-stimulated genes were observed. In addition to revealing the proinflammatory roles and mechanisms of LY6E in macrophages, given that various subgroups of macrophages have been identified in the kidneys of patients with lupus nephritis, targeted treatment aimed at LY6E may be a potential therapeutic for lupus nephritis.

Application of large-scale and multicohort plasma proteomics data to discover novel causal proteins in gastric cancer

PURPOSES

Gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common malignant tumors threatening human beings and has a poor prognosis. Therefore, exploring unveiled biomarkers or therapeutic targets for the diagnosis and treatment of GC is crucial.

METHODS

A total of 5772 protein quantitative trait loci (pQTL) were aggregated from four latest large-scale proteomics cohorts. Two-sample Mendelian randomization (two-sample MR) was utilized to identify the causal effect of blood plasma proteins on GC. Heterogeneity, pleiotropy, and directionality analyses were employed to evaluate proteins identified via two-sample MR. The robustness of results was further validated via colocalization. The drug targets of proteins were evaluated to reveal the compounds that can interfere with these proteins.

RESULTS

Ten proteins with potential causations in relation to GC were identified: LY6D, SLURP1, MLN, PSCA, THSD1, CFTR, PPM1B, KDM3A, TSC1, and HCG22. Among these proteins, LY6D, SLURP1, and THSD1 were considered as the most reliable biomarkers of GC due to their significant H4 posterior probabilities in colocalization analysis and absence of pleiotropy. Compound 35, nitrosamide, and 0175029-0000 were potential drugs or small molecules targeting LY6D, SLURP1, and THSD1, respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study identified several plasma proteins as potential biomarkers of GC and provided data support and new insights into the early diagnosis, intervention, and therapeutic targets of GC.

Lymphocyte antigen 6 family member E suppresses apoptosis and promotes pancreatic cancer growth and migration via Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is the primary cause of cancer-related mortality. Due to the absence of reliable biomarkers for predicting prognosis or guiding treatment, there is an urgent need for molecular studies on PC. Lymphocyte antigen 6 family member E (LY6E) is implicated in uncontrolled cell growth across various cancers. However, the precise mechanism of LY6E in PC remains unclear. Here, we conducted comprehensive bioinformatic analyses using online tools and R- × 64-4.1.1, complemented by experimental validation through Western blotting, immunohistochemistry, immunosorbent assays, flow cytometry, cell assays, and animal models. Our findings reveal significantly elevated expression of LY6E in PC, correlating with poor prognosis. LY6E knockdown inhibited proliferation, invasion, and migration of PC cells, while enhancing apoptosis evidenced by increased cleaved caspase 3 levels and alterations in the Bcl-2/Bax ratio. Conversely, LY6E overexpression promoted PC cell proliferation and migration, and inhibited apoptosis. Mechanistically, LY6E downregulation suppressed the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. In vivo studies demonstrated that LY6E suppression attenuated tumor growth in murine models. Additionally, LY6E suppression resulted in reduced tumor growth in mice. In conclusion, our study confirms the significant role of LY6E in the progression of PC. LY6E, serving as an independent prognostic indicator, has the potential to serve as a valuable biomarker for PC to inform treatment strategies.

The Cloning and Characterization of a Three-Finger Toxin Homolog (NXH8) from the Coralsnake Micrurus corallinus That Interacts with Skeletal Muscle Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Coralsnakes (Micrurus spp.) are the only elapids found throughout the Americas. They are recognized for their highly neurotoxic venom, which is comprised of a wide variety of toxins, including the stable, low-mass toxins known as three-finger toxins (3FTx). Due to difficulties in venom extraction and availability, research on coralsnake venoms is still very limited when compared to that of other Elapidae snakes like cobras, kraits, and mambas. In this study, two previously described 3FTx from the venom of M. corallinus, NXH1 (3SOC1_MICCO), and NXH8 (3NO48_MICCO) were characterized. Using in silico, in vitro, and ex vivo experiments, the biological activities of these toxins were predicted and evaluated. The results showed that only NXH8 was capable of binding to skeletal muscle cells and modulating the activity of nAChRs in nerve-diaphragm preparations. These effects were antagonized by anti-rNXH8 or antielapidic sera. Sequence analysis revealed that the NXH1 toxin possesses eight cysteine residues and four disulfide bonds, while the NXH8 toxin has a primary structure similar to that of non-conventional 3FTx, with an additional disulfide bond on the first loop. These findings add more information related to the structural diversity present within the 3FTx class, while expanding our understanding of the mechanisms of the toxicity of this coralsnake venom and opening new perspectives for developing more effective therapeutic interventions.

A systematic survey of LU domain-containing proteins reveals a novel human gene, LY6A, which encodes the candidate ortholog of mouse Ly-6A/Sca-1 and is aberrantly expressed in pituitary tumors

The Ly-6 and uPAR (LU) domain-containing proteins represent a large family of cell-surface markers. In particular, mouse Ly-6A/Sca-1 is a widely used marker for various stem cells; however, its human ortholog is missing. In this study, based on a systematic survey and comparative genomic study of mouse and human LU domain-containing proteins, we identified a previously unannotated human gene encoding the candidate ortholog of mouse Ly-6A/Sca-1. This gene, hereby named LY6A, reversely overlaps with a lncRNA gene in the majority of exonic sequences. We found that LY6A is aberrantly expressed in pituitary tumors, but not in normal pituitary tissues, and may contribute to tumorigenesis. Similar to mouse Ly-6A/Sca-1, human LY6A is also upregulated by interferon, suggesting a conserved transcriptional regulatory mechanism between humans and mice. We cloned the full-length LY6A cDNA, whose encoded protein sequence, domain architecture, and exon-intron structures are all well conserved with mouse Ly-6A/Sca-1. Ectopic expression of the LY6A protein in cells demonstrates that it acts the same as mouse Ly-6A/Sca-1 in their processing and glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchoring to the cell membrane. Collectively, these studies unveil a novel human gene encoding a candidate biomarker and provide an interesting model gene for studying gene regulatory and evolutionary mechanisms.

Streptococcus pneumoniae Rapidly Translocate from the Nasopharynx through the Cribriform Plate to Invade the Outer Meninges

The entry routes and translocation mechanisms of microorganisms or particulate materials into the central nervous system remain obscure We report here that Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), or polystyrene microspheres of similar size, appear in the meninges of the dorsal cortex of mice within minutes of inhaled delivery. Recovery of viable bacteria from dissected tissue and fluorescence microscopy show that up to at least 72 h, pneumococci and microspheres were predominantly found in the outer of the two meninges: the pachymeninx. No pneumococci were found in blood or cerebrospinal fluid. Intravital imaging through the skull, aligned with flow cytometry showed recruitment and activation of LysM+ cells in the dorsal pachymeninx at 5 and 10 hours following intranasal infection. Imaging of the cribriform plate suggested that both pneumococci and microspheres entered through the foramina via an inward flow of fluid connecting the nose to the pachymeninx. Our findings bring new insight into the varied mechanisms of pneumococcal invasion of the central nervous system, but they are also pertinent to the delivery of drugs to the brain and the entry of airborne particulate matter into the cranium. IMPORTANCE Using two-photon imaging, we show that pneumococci translocate from the nasopharynx to the dorsal meninges of a mouse in the absence of any bacteria found in blood or cerebrospinal fluid. Strikingly, this takes place within minutes of inhaled delivery of pneumococci, suggesting the existence of an inward flow of fluid connecting the nasopharynx to the meninges, rather than a receptor-mediated mechanism. We also show that this process is size dependent, as microspheres of the same size as pneumococci can translocate along the same pathway, while larger size microspheres cannot. Furthermore, we describe the host response to invasion of the outer meninges. Our study provides a completely new insight into the key initial events that occur during the translocation of pneumococci directly from the nasal cavity to the meninges, with relevance to the development of intranasal drug delivery systems and the investigations of brain damage caused by inhaled air pollutants.

Microenergy acoustic pulse therapy restores urethral wall integrity and continence in a rat model of female stress incontinence

OBJECTIVE

To determine the outcomes and mechanisms of microenergy acoustic pulse (MAP) therapy in an irreversible rat model of female stress urinary incontinence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-four female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups: sham control (sham), vaginal balloon dilation and ovariectomy (VBDO), VBDO + β-aminopropionitrile (BAPN), and VBDO + β-aminopropionitrile treated with MAP (MAP). MAP therapy was administered twice per week for 4 weeks. After a 1-week washout period, all 24 rats were evaluated with functional and histological studies. The urethral vascular plexus was examined by immunofluorescence staining with antibodies against collagen IV and von Willebrand factor (vWF). The urethral smooth muscle stem/progenitor cells (uSMPCs) were isolated and functionally studied in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

Functional study with leak point pressure (LPP) measurement showed that the MAP group had significantly higher LPPs compared to VBDO and BAPN groups. MAP ameliorated the decline in urethral wall thickness and increased the amount of extracellular matrix within the urethral wall, especially in the urethral and vaginal elastic fibers. MAP also improved the disruption of the urethral vascular plexus in the treated animals. In addition, MAP enhanced the regeneration of urethral and vaginal smooth muscle, and uSMPCs could be induced by MAP to differentiate into smooth muscle and neuron-like cells in vitro.

CONCLUSION

MAP appears to restore urethral wall integrity by increasing muscle content in the urethra and the vagina and by improving the urethral vascular plexus and the extracellular matrix.

Multidimension Analysis of the Prognostic Value, Immune Regulatory Function, and ceRNA Network of LY6E in Individuals with Colorectal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus E (LY6E) is abnormally expressed in several cancers and is associated with poor outcomes. However, the biological role of LY6E in colorectal cancer (CRC) remains largely unknown. Hence, we aimed to evaluate the expression levels, prognostic value, biological functions, and immune effects of LY6E via pan-cancer and CRC analyses using multiple databases.

METHODS

We analyzed the expression pattern of LY6E in various cancers. The prognostic value of LY6E expression was identified using the Kaplan-Meier analysis and the Cox regression models. We used gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) to identify the potential functions of LY6E. Correlations between the LY6E expression and various factors, including LY6E methylation level, copy number variation (CNV), microsatellite instability (MSI), and immune checkpoint genes, were also analyzed. The levels of LY6E expression and immune infiltration were analyzed using CIBERSORT. We constructed a regulatory network that was in compliance with the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) hypothesis. A ceRNA expression-based nomogram was established. Real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was applied to validate the expression of LY6E-related ceRNA in CRC cell lines.

RESULTS

LY6E is overexpressed in several tumor types, including CRC, and patients with high expression levels of LY6E have a poor prognosis. The Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox regression analysis showed that LY6E could be considered a favorable prognostic factor in TCGA and GEO cohort. The results of GSEA showed that high LY6E expression levels were associated with immune-related pathways, such as those involved in antigen processing and presentation and the intestinal immune network for IgA production. Six methylation sites of LY6E that were associated with prognostic survival were screened. Moreover, the high levels of LY6E expression were correlated with copy number gain, microsatellite instability high, and immunotherapy response. The results of CIBERSORT analysis demonstrated that the LY6E expression levels were correlated with the infiltration of multiple immune cells, especially T cells. Then, we constructed a ceRNA network (LINC00963/miR-92a-3p/LY6E) and validated it using qRT-PCR. A predictive ceRNA-based nomogram was established and validated.

CONCLUSION

The oncogenic LY6E may serve as a promising marker for the diagnosis and treatment of CRC.

Phospholipase A2 inhibitor and LY6/PLAUR domain-containing protein PINLYP regulates type I interferon innate immunity

Type I interferons (IFNs) are the first frontline of the host innate immune response against invading pathogens. Herein, we characterized an unknown protein encoded by phospholipase A2 inhibitor and LY6/PLAUR domain-containing (PINLYP) gene that interacted with TBK1 and induced type I IFN in a TBK1- and IRF3-dependent manner. Loss of PINLYP impaired the activation of IRF3 and production of IFN-β induced by DNA virus, RNA virus, and various Toll-like receptor ligands in multiple cell types. Because PINLYP deficiency in mice engendered an early embryonic lethality in mice, we generated a conditional mouse in which PINLYP was depleted in dendritic cells. Mice lacking PINLYP in dendritic cells were defective in type I IFN induction and more susceptible to lethal virus infection. Thus, PINLYP is a positive regulator of type I IFN innate immunity and important for effective host defense against viral infection.

Molecular mechanisms of breast cancer chemoresistance by immune checkpoints

Progression of resistance to chemotherapy in breast cancer (BC) has been recognized as a main factor in decreasing the survival of patients with this malignancy. Recent investigations have described the involvement of immune checkpoint molecules in the progress of drug resistance in breast carcinoma patients. In the present study, the molecular participation of immune checkpoint factors in chemoresistance of BC both in-vitro and in-vivo is reviewed. Numerous immune checkpoints such as PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, B7-H3, B7-H4, B7-1, and B7-2 have been specified as positive regulators of resistance to various drug types in BC. In several molecular pathways of drug resistance in BC, immune checkpoints affect the chemoresistance of this cancer in a drug- and cell-type-dependent manner. In addition, immune checkpoints promote chemoresistance in response to particular drugs in specific BC cell lines. Furthermore, several the immune checkpoint molecules have not been evaluated in the field of the chemoresistance in breast malignancy either in-vitro or in-vivo. Overall, investigations have indicated that targeting immune checkpoint molecules may be considered as a novel method to improve existing anti-BC treatments.

Novel multiparameter correlates of Coxiella burnetii infection and vaccination identified by longitudinal deep immune profiling

Q-fever is a flu-like illness caused by Coxiella burnetii (Cb), a highly infectious intracellular bacterium. There is an unmet need for a safe and effective vaccine for Q-fever. Correlates of immune protection to Cb infection are limited. We proposed that analysis by longitudinal high dimensional immune (HDI) profiling using mass cytometry combined with other measures of vaccination and protection could be used to identify novel correlates of effective vaccination and control of Cb infection. Using a vaccine-challenge model in HLA-DR transgenic mice, we demonstrated significant alterations in circulating T-cell and innate immune populations that distinguished vaccinated from naïve mice within 10 days, and persisted until at least 35 days post-vaccination. Following challenge, vaccinated mice exhibited reduced bacterial burden and splenomegaly, along with distinct effector T-cell and monocyte profiles. Correlation of HDI data to serological and pathological measurements was performed. Our data indicate a Th1-biased response to Cb, consistent with previous reports, and identify Ly6C, CD73, and T-bet expression in T-cell, NK-cell, and monocytic populations as distinguishing features between vaccinated and naïve mice. This study refines the understanding of the integrated immune response to Cb vaccine and challenge, which can inform the assessment of candidate vaccines for Cb.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells in transplantation tolerance induction

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a group of heterogeneous cells derived from bone marrow. These cells are developed from immature myeloid cells and have strong negative immunomodulatory effects. In the context of pathology (such as tumor, autoimmune disease, trauma, and burns), MDSCs accumulate around tumor and inflammatory tissues, where their main role is to inhibit the function of effector T cells and promote the recruitment of regulatory T cells. MDSCs can be used in organ transplantation to regulate the immune responses that participate in rejection of the transplanted organ. This effect is achieved by increasing the production of MDSCs in vivo or transfusion of MDSCs induced in vitro to establish immune tolerance and prolong the survival of the graft. In this review, we discuss the efficacy of MDSCs in a variety of transplantation studies as well as the induction of immune tolerance to prevent transplant rejection through the use of common clinical immunosuppressants combined with MDSCs.

Relating GPI-Anchored Ly6 Proteins uPAR and CD59 to Viral Infection

The Ly6 (lymphocyte antigen-6)/uPAR (urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor) superfamily protein is a group of molecules that share limited sequence homology but conserved three-fingered structures. Despite diverse cellular functions, such as in regulating host immunity, cell adhesion, and migration, the physiological roles of these factors in vivo remain poorly characterized. Notably, increasing research has focused on the interplays between Ly6/uPAR proteins and viral pathogens, the results of which have provided new insight into viral entry and virus-host interactions. While LY6E (lymphocyte antigen 6 family member E), one key member of the Ly6E/uPAR-family proteins, has been extensively studied, other members have not been well characterized. Here, we summarize current knowledge of Ly6/uPAR proteins related to viral infection, with a focus on uPAR and CD59. Our goal is to provide an up-to-date view of the Ly6/uPAR-family proteins and associated virus-host interaction and viral pathogenesis.

Emerging Role of Lymphocyte Antigen-6 Family of Genes in Cancer and Immune Cells

Stem Cell Antigen-1 (Sca-1/Ly6A) was the first identified member of the Lymphocyte antigen-6 (Ly6) gene family. Sca-1 serves as a marker of cancer stem cells and tissue resident stem cells in mice. The Sca-1 gene is located on mouse chromosome 15. While a direct homolog of Sca-1 in humans is missing, human chromosome 8—the syntenic region to mouse chromosome 15—harbors several genes containing the characteristic domain known as LU domain. The function of the LU domain in human LY6 gene family is not yet defined. The LY6 gene family proteins are present on human chromosome 6, 8, 11, and 19. The most interesting of these genes are located on chromosome 8q24.3, a frequently amplified locus in human cancer. Human LY6 genes represent novel biomarkers for poor cancer prognosis and are required for cancer progression in addition to playing an important role in immune escape. Although the mechanism associated with these phenotype is not yet clear, it is timely to review the current literature in order to address the critical need for future advancements in this field. This review will summarize recent findings which describe the role of human LY6 genes—LY6D, LY6E, LY6H, LY6K, PSCA, LYPD2, SLURP1, GML, GPIHBP1, and LYNX1; and their orthologs in mice at chromosome 15.

Immunocontraceptive target repertoire defined by systematic identification of sperm membrane alloantigens in a single species

Sperm competence in animal fertilization requires the collective activities of numerous sperm-specific proteins that are typically alloimmunogenic in females. Consequently, sperm membrane alloantigens are potential targets for contraceptives that act by blocking the proteins' functions in gamete interactions. Here we used a targeted proteomics approach to identify the major alloantigens in swine sperm membranes and lipid rafts, and thereby systematically defined the repertoire of these sperm-specific proteins in a single species. Gilts with high alloantibody reactivity to proteins in sperm membranes or lipid rafts produced fewer offspring (73% decrease) than adjuvant-only or nonimmune control animals. Alloantisera recognized more than 20 potentially unique sperm membrane proteins and five sperm lipid raft proteins resolved on two-dimensional immunoblots with or without prior enrichment by anion exchange chromatography. Dominant sperm membrane alloantigens identified by mass spectrometry included the ADAMs fertilin α, fertilin ß, and cyritestin. Less abundant alloantigens included ATP synthase F1 β subunit, myo-inositol monophosphatase-1, and zymogen granule membrane glycoprotein-2. Immunodominant sperm lipid raft alloantigens included SAMP14, lymphocyte antigen 6K, and the epididymal sperm protein E12. Of the fifteen unique membrane alloantigens identified, eleven were known sperm-specific proteins with uncertain functions in fertilization, and four were not previously suspected to exist as sperm-specific isoforms. De novo sequences of tryptic peptides from sperm membrane alloantigen "M6" displayed no evident homology to known proteins, so is a newly discovered sperm-specific gene product in swine. We conclude that alloimmunizing gilts with sperm membranes or lipid rafts evokes formation of antibodies to a relatively small number of dominant alloantigens that include known and novel sperm-specific proteins with possible functions in fertilization and potential utility as targets for immunocontraception.

Involvement of Lypge in the formation of eye and pineal gland in zebrafish

The proteins of Ly-6 (lymphocyte antigen-6) family are involved in the regulation of immunoreaction, cell migration and adhesion, and neuronal excitability. However, little is known about the function of Ly-6 proteins in embryogenesis. Herein, we identified a GPI anchored Ly-6 member named ly6 expressed in pineal gland and eye (lypge). Dynamic expression pattern of lypge was revealed by whole mount in situ hybridization. It was strikingly expressed in the pineal gland and cone photoreceptor, and its expression was regulated by orthodenticle homolog 5 (otx5) which has been shown to control the expression of many pineal genes. In addition, we demonstrated that lypge was rhythmically expressed in larvae from 4dpf on. Moreover, knockdown of lypge resulted in small head and small eye formed in zebrafish embryos. These suggest that Lypge is involved in the formation of the eye and pineal gland in early development of zebrafish.

Impairment of Hematopoietic Precursor Cell Activation during the Granulopoietic Response to Bacteremia in Mice with Chronic-Plus-Binge Alcohol Administration

Alcohol abuse impairs immune defense. To study the effect of chronic-plus-binge alcohol exposure on the granulopoietic response, acute alcohol intoxication (intraperitoneal injection of 5 g alcohol/kg body weight) was introduced to mice chronically fed on the Lieber-DeCarli low-fat liquid alcohol diet for 5 weeks. Bacteremia was induced by intravenous injection of Escherichia coli Bacteremia caused a remarkable increase in marrow lin^- c-kit⁺ Sca-1⁺ cells. Activation of cell proliferation supported the increase in marrow lin^- c-kit⁺ Sca-1⁺ cells. Alcohol administration inhibited this activation of lin^- c-kit⁺ Sca-1⁺ cells. The bone marrow of pair-fed control mice receiving intraperitoneal saline stored a large number of mature granulocytes expressing a high level of Gr1 (Gr1^hi cells). The proportion of Gr1^hi cells and the total number of Gr1⁺ cells were markedly reduced in the bone marrow, along with an increase in the ratio of Gr1⁺ granulocytes in peripheral white blood cells following bacteremia. E. coli infection stimulated proliferation of granulopoietic precursor cells, resulting in a marked increase in the ratio of immature Gr1^lo cells in the bone marrow. Alcohol administration itself triggered marrow release of Gr1⁺ cells, resulting in reduction of the marrow granulocyte reserve with an elevation of granulocytes in the circulation. Alcohol also impaired activation of granulopoietic precursor proliferation following bacteremia. Alcohol disrupted lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-TLR4-ERK1/2-cyclin D1 signaling and inhibited upregulation of Sca-1 and C/EBPβ expression by lineage-negative marrow cells in response to bacteremia. These results indicate that chronic-plus-binge alcohol exposure inhibits the granulopoietic response by disrupting key cell signaling for hematopoietic precursor cell activation and commitment to granulocyte lineage development.

LY6E: a conductor of malignant tumor growth through modulation of the PTEN/PI3K/Akt/HIF-1 axis

Lymphocyte antigen 6 complex, locus E (LY6E) has been implicated in the malignant progression of various types of cancers; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we identified LY6E as an activator of HIF-1 and revealed their mechanistic and functional links in malignant tumor growth. The aberrant overexpression of LY6E increased HIF-1α gene expression principally at the transcription level. This, in turn, led to the expression of the pro-angiogenic factors, VEGFA and PDGFB, through decreases in the expression levels of PTEN mRNA and subsequent activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. The LY6E-HIF-1 axis functioned to increase tumor blood vessel density and promoted tumor growth in immunodeficient mice. LY6E expression levels were significantly higher in human breast cancers than in normal breast tissues, and were strongly associated with the poor prognoses of various cancer patients. Our results characterized LY6E as a novel conductor of tumor growth through its modulation of the PTEN/PI3K/Akt/HIF-1 axis and demonstrated the validity of targeting this pathway for cancer therapy.

Identification and expression of a new Ly6 gene cluster in zebrafish Danio rerio, with implications of being involved in embryonic immunity

Lymphocyte antigen-6 (Ly6) superfamily is a large family of proteins and characterized by precisely spaced cysteine motifs, termed the three-finger fold. To date, a large number of members of the Ly6/uPAR family were identified among many species. In this study, we first report the identification and characterization of the secreted Ly2.1-3 proteins on the chromosome 2 in zebrafish and determine the expression pattern. Ly2.1-3 all possess a conserved LU domain and adopt similar three-finger structure with human CD59, SLURP1 and other Ly6 family members. Ly2.1-3 cluster on chromosome 2 and share high homology, possibly originated from chromosomal gene duplication. Ly2.1-3 exhibit distinct expression pattern in the endoderm, they were found abundantly and specifically in the digestive tract, liver and pancreas respectively. The differential expression pattern may suggest Ly2.1-3 acquire new function during gene duplication. The expression level of Ly2.1-3 were up-regulating challenged with LPS indicated that they have a role in innate immune responses of the digestive system during endotoxin challenge in early stage.

Organization, evolution and functions of the human and mouse Ly6/uPAR family genes

Members of the lymphocyte antigen-6 (Ly6)/urokinase-type plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) superfamily of proteins are cysteine-rich proteins characterized by a distinct disulfide bridge pattern that creates the three-finger Ly6/uPAR (LU) domain. Although the Ly6/uPAR family proteins share a common structure, their expression patterns and functions vary. To date, 35 human and 61 mouse Ly6/uPAR family members have been identified. Based on their subcellular localization, these proteins are further classified as GPI-anchored on the cell membrane, or secreted. The genes encoding Ly6/uPAR family proteins are conserved across different species and are clustered in syntenic regions on human chromosomes 8, 19, 6 and 11, and mouse Chromosomes 15, 7, 17, and 9, respectively. Here, we review the human and mouse Ly6/uPAR family gene and protein structure and genomic organization, expression, functions, and evolution, and introduce new names for novel family members.

Ly6E/K Signaling to TGFβ Promotes Breast Cancer Progression, Immune Escape, and Drug Resistance

Stem cell antigen Sca-1 is implicated in murine cancer stem cell biology and breast cancer models, but the role of its human homologs Ly6K and Ly6E in breast cancer are not established. Here we report increased expression of Ly6K/E in human breast cancer specimens correlates with poor overall survival, with an additional specific role for Ly6E in poor therapeutic outcomes. Increased expression of Ly6K/E also correlated with increased expression of the immune checkpoint molecules PDL1 and CTLA4, increased tumor-infiltrating T regulatory cells, and decreased natural killer (NK) cell activation. Mechanistically, Ly6K/E was required for TGFβ signaling and proliferation in breast cancer cells, where they contributed to phosphorylation of Smad1/5 and Smad2/3. Furthermore, Ly6K/E promoted cytokine-induced PDL1 expression and activation and binding of NK cells to cancer cells. Finally, we found that Ly6K/E promoted drug resistance and facilitated immune escape in this setting. Overall, our results establish a pivotal role for a Ly6K/E signaling axis involving TGFβ in breast cancer pathophysiology and drug response, and highlight this signaling axis as a compelling realm for therapeutic invention. Cancer Res; 76(11); 3376-86. ©2016 AACR.

The prototoxin LYPD6B modulates heteromeric α3β4-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, but not α7 homomers

Prototoxins are a diverse family of membrane-tethered molecules expressed in the nervous system that modulate nicotinic cholinergic signaling, but their functions and specificity have yet to be completely explored. We tested the selectivity and efficacy of leukocyte antigen, PLAUR (plasminogen activator, urokinase receptor) domain-containing (LYPD)-6B on α3β4-, α3α5β4-, and α7-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). To constrain stoichiometry, fusion proteins encoding concatemers of human α3, β4, and α5 (D and N variants) subunits were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and tested with or without LYPD6B. We used the 2-electrode voltage-clamp method to quantify responses to acetylcholine (ACh): agonist sensitivity (EC50), maximal agonist-induced current (Imax), and time constant (τ) of desensitization. For β4-α3-α3-β4-α3 and β4-α3-β4-α3-α3, LYPD6B decreased EC50 from 631 to 79 μM, reduced Imax by at least 59%, and decreased τ. For β4-α3-α5D-β4-α3 and β4-α3-β4-α-α5D, LYPD6B decreased Imax by 63 and 32%, respectively. Thus, LYPD6B acted only on (α3)3(β4)2 and (α3)2(α5D)(β4)2 and did not affect the properties of (α3)2(β4)3, α7, or (α3)2(α5N)(β4)2 nAChRs. Therefore, LYPD6B acts as a mixed modulator that enhances the sensitivity of (α3)3(β4)2 nAChRs to ACh while reducing ACh-induced whole-cell currents. LYPD6B also negatively modulates α3β4 nAChRs that include the α5D common human variant, but not the N variant associated with nicotine dependence.

Impact of Toxoplasma gondii on Dendritic Cell Subset Function in the Intestinal Mucosa

The function of mucosal dendritic cell (DC) subsets in immunity and inflammation is not well understood. In this study, we define four DC subsets present within the lamina propria and mesenteric lymph node compartments based on expression of CD103 and CD11b. Using IL-12p40 YFP (Yet40) reporter mice, we show that CD103(+)CD11b(-) mucosal DCs are primary in vivo sources of IL-12p40; we also identified CD103(-)CD11b(-) mucosal DCs as a novel population producing this cytokine. Infection was preferentially found in CD11b(+) DCs that were negative for CD103. Lamina propria DCs containing parasites were negative for IL-12p40. Instead, production of the cytokine was strictly a property of noninfected cells. We also show that vitamin A metabolism, as measured by ALDH activity, was preferentially found in CD103(+)CD11b(+) DC and was strongly downregulated in all mucosal DC subsets during infection. Finally, overall apoptosis of lamina propria DC subsets was increased during infection. Combined, these results highlight the ability of intestinal Toxoplasma infection to alter mucosal DC activity at both the whole population level and at the level of individual subsets.

Identification and expression of an uncharacterized Ly-6 gene cluster in zebrafish Danio rerio

The Ly-6/uPAR/CD59/neurotoxin superfamily (Ly-6SF) identified in most metazoan has been shown to play important roles in different biological processes including immunity, cellular adhesion, and cell signaling. Members of this superfamily contain one or more conserved domains known as Ly-6/uPAR (LU) domain, which harbors 8 or 10 conserved cysteine residues forming 4-5 disulfide bonds. In this study, we reported the identification of a novel zebrafish Ly-6 gene cluster on chromosome 21, which consists of seven genes ly21.1, ly21.2, ly21.3, ly21.4, ly21.5, ly21.6, and ly21.7 and their spatiotemporal expression pattern during development. All the seven genes possess features typical of the Ly-6/neurotoxin superfamily, and phylogenetic analysis shows that these genes form a single cluster branching form other members of Ly-6 family, suggesting that the seven genes evolved by an event of intra-chromosome gene duplication. However, deduced Ly21.1-7 proteins share little homology with Ly-6 family proteins from other species, no orthologs are identified in vertebrates, including teleosts, hinting that ly21.1-7 genes are evolutionarily a novel addition to zebrafish. Expression analyses show that maternal mRNAs of ly21.1-7 genes are detected during early developmental stages, but later in development, they exhibit tissue-specific expression. Except for ly21.2 which is expressed in the skin ionocytes, all the remaining six genes are mainly expressed in the developing brain.

Identification of a Ly-6 superfamily gene expressed in lateral line neuromasts in zebrafish

Lymphocyte antigen-6 (Ly-6) superfamily members have been identified in zebrafish, but the expression and function of these Ly-6 genes remain largely unknown. Posterior lateral line (pLL) system is produced by migrating pLL primordium (pLLp). Chemokine signaling, Notch, Wnt, and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling regulate migration of pLLp cells and formation of neuromasts. However, the mechanism of neuromast deposition remains to be explored. Identification of novel genes expressed in pLLp will certainly help the study of such a process. Here we identified a Ly-6 gene called neuromast-expressed gpi-anchored lymphocyte antigen-6 (negaly6), which was specifically expressed in neuromast. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that negaly6 started to be expressed at 24 hpf, and whole-mount in situ hybridization analysis indicated that negaly6 was highly expressed in the trailing zone of pLLp and mature neuromast. Furthermore, negaly6 expression was inhibited by FGF signaling antagonist but not by Wnt signaling agonist or antagonist. Collectively, these data indicate that negaly6 may be associated with the regulation of neuromast deposition via FGF signaling pathway.

Requirement for interactions of natural killer T cells and myeloid-derived suppressor cells for transplantation tolerance

The goal of the study was to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which a clinically applicable immune tolerance regimen of combined bone marrow and heart transplants in mice results in mixed chimerism and graft acceptance. The conditioning regimen of lymphoid irradiation and anti-T cell antibodies changed the balance of cells in the lymphoid tissues to create a tolerogenic microenvironment favoring the increase of natural killer T (NKT) cells, CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells and Gr-1+ CD11b+ myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), over conventional T cells (Tcons). The depletion of MDSCs abrogated chimerism and tolerance, and add back of these purified cells was restorative. The conditioning regimen activated the MDSCs as judged by the increased expression of arginase-1, IL-4Rα and programmed death ligand 1, and the activated cells gained the capacity to suppress the proliferation of Tcons to alloantigens in the mixed leukocyte reaction. MDSC activation was dependent on the presence of host invariant NKT cells. The conditioning regimen polarized the host invariant NKT cells toward IL-4 secretion, and MDSC activation was dependent on IL-4. In conclusion, there was a requirement for MDSCs for chimerism and tolerance, and their suppressive function was dependent on their interactions with NKT cells and IL-4.

Lypd6 enhances Wnt/β-catenin signaling by promoting Lrp6 phosphorylation in raft plasma membrane domains

Wnt/β-catenin signaling plays critical roles during embryogenesis, tissue homeostasis, and regeneration. How Wnt-receptor complex activity is regulated is not yet fully understood. Here, we identify the Ly6 family protein LY6/PLAUR domain-containing 6 (Lypd6) as a positive feedback regulator of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. lypd6 enhances Wnt signaling in zebrafish and Xenopus embryos and in mammalian cells, and it is required for wnt8-mediated patterning of the mesoderm and neuroectoderm during zebrafish gastrulation. Lypd6 is GPI anchored to the plasma membrane and physically interacts with the Wnt receptor Frizzled8 and the coreceptor Lrp6. Biophysical and biochemical evidence indicates that Lypd6 preferentially localizes to raft membrane domains, where Lrp6 is phosphorylated upon Wnt stimulation. lypd6 knockdown or mislocalization of the Lypd6 protein to nonraft membrane domains shifts Lrp6 phosphorylation to these domains and inhibits Wnt signaling. Thus, Lypd6 appears to control Lrp6 activation specifically in membrane rafts, which is essential for downstream signaling.

Isolation, characterization, and transplantation of cardiac endothelial cells

Isolation and ex vivo expansion of cardiac endothelial cells have been a recurrent challenge due to difficulties in isolation, cell heterogeneity, lack of specific markers to identify myocardial endothelial cells, and inadequate conditions to maintain long-term cultures. Herein, we developed a method for isolation, characterization, and expansion of cardiac endothelial cells applicable to study endothelial cell biology and clinical applications such as neoangiogenesis. First, we dissociated the cells from murine heart by mechanical disaggregation and enzymatic digestion. Then, we used flow cytometry coupled with specific markers to isolate endothelial cells from murine hearts. CD45+ cells were gated out to eliminate the hematopoietic cells. CD31+/Sca-1+ cells were isolated as endothelial cells. Cells isolated from atrium grew faster than those from ventricle. Cardiac endothelial cells maintain endothelial cell function such as vascular tube formation and acetylated-LDL uptake in vitro. Finally, cardiac endothelial cells formed microvessels in dorsal matrigel plug and engrafted in cardiac microvessels following intravenous and intra-arterial injections. In conclusion, our multicolor flow cytometry method is an effective method to analyze and purify endothelial cells from murine heart, which in turn can be ex vivo expanded to study the biology of endothelial cells or for clinical applications such as therapeutic angiogenesis.

On the three-finger protein domain fold and CD59-like proteins in Schistosoma mansoni

Background

It is believed that schistosomes evade complement-mediated killing by expressing regulatory proteins on their surface. Recently, six homologues of human CD59, an important inhibitor of the complement system membrane attack complex, were identified in the schistosome genome. Therefore, it is important to investigate whether these molecules could act as CD59-like complement inhibitors in schistosomes as part of an immune evasion strategy.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Herein, we describe the molecular characterization of seven putative SmCD59-like genes and attempt to address the putative biological function of two isoforms. Superimposition analysis of the 3D structure of hCD59 and schistosome sequences revealed that they contain the three-fingered protein domain (TFPD). However, the conserved amino acid residues involved in complement recognition in mammals could not be identified. Real-time RT-PCR and Western blot analysis determined that most of these genes are up-regulated in the transition from free-living cercaria to adult worm stage. Immunolocalization experiments and tegument preparations confirm that at least some of the SmCD59-like proteins are surface-localized; however, significant expression was also detected in internal tissues of adult worms. Finally, the involvement of two SmCD59 proteins in complement inhibition was evaluated by three different approaches: (i) a hemolytic assay using recombinant soluble forms expressed in Pichia pastoris and E. coli; (ii) complement-resistance of CHO cells expressing the respective membrane-anchored proteins; and (iii) the complement killing of schistosomula after gene suppression by RNAi. Our data indicated that these proteins are not involved in the regulation of complement activation.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that this group of proteins belongs to the TFPD superfamily. Their expression is associated to intra-host stages, present in the tegument surface, and also in intra-parasite tissues. Three distinct approaches using SmCD59 proteins to inhibit complement strongly suggested that these proteins are not complement inhibitors and their function in schistosomes remains to be determined.

Schistosomes are parasites that reside for many years in the blood stream, demanding efficient mechanisms of evading immune response effectors such as complement deposition. A group of genes similar to human CD59, an important complement inhibitor in mammals, were identified in the schistosome genome. Computer predictions of protein structure indicated substantial similarity of the schistosome proteins and the mammalian CD59 family of proteins, which due to their three-finger-shaped spatial conformation are members of the Three-Finger Protein Domain fold superfamily (TFPD). Members of this family of schistosome proteins were also shown to be expressed predominantly during the mammalian stages when worms are exposed to complement and found to be present at the host-interactive surface of schistosomes. Three different methods were employed to test the possible involvement of these proteins in complement inhibition. Our results strongly suggest that these proteins are not involved in the inhibition of complement and that further studies are needed to establish their functional role(s) in schistosomes.

Characterization and function of human Ly-6/uPAR molecules

Human Ly-6/uPAR molecules are a superfamily composed of two subfamilies; one is the membrane bound proteins with a GPI-anchor and the other are secreted proteins without the GPI-anchor. Ly-6/uPAR molecules have remarkable amino acid homology through a distinctive 8-10 cysteine-rich domain that is associated predominantly with O-linked glycans. These molecules are encoded by multiple tightly linked genes located on Chr. 8q23, and have a conserved genomic organization. Ly-6/uPAR molecules have an interesting expression pattern during hematopoiesis and on specific tumors indicating that Ly-6/uPAR molecules are associated with development of the immune system and carcinogenesis. Thus, Ly-6/uPAR molecules are useful antigens for diagnostic and therapeutic targets. This review summarizes our understanding of human Ly-6/ uPAR molecules with regard to molecular structure as well as what is known about their function in normal and malignant tissues and suggest Ly-6/uPAR molecules as target antigens for cancer immunotherapy.

Defining skeletal muscle resident progenitors and their cell fate potentials

The satellite cell is the major tissue-resident stem cell underlying muscle regeneration; however, multiple non-satellite myogenic progenitors as well as non-myogenic populations that support the muscle regenerative process have been identified. PW1 is expressed in satellite cells as well as in a subset of interstitial cells with myogenic potential termed PICs (PW1+ interstitial cells). Microarray profiling revealed that PICs express a broad range of genes common to mesenchymal stem cells, whereas satellite cells express genes consistent with a committed myogenic progenitor. Isolated PICs from both young and adult muscles can differentiate into smooth and skeletal muscle and fat whereas satellite cells are restricted to a skeletal muscle fate. We demonstrate that the adipogenic potential of PICs corresponds to a subpopulation that expresses platelet derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα) and overlaps with the recently described interstitial adipogenic progenitors. By contrast, PICs with myogenic potential do not express PDGFRα. Moreover, we observe a discrete and transient population of juvenile PICs based upon SCA1 expression that disappears by 3 weeks of postnatal development coincident with a switch in the cellular and genetic mechanisms underlying postnatal muscle growth.

Toll-like receptor 4/stem cell antigen 1 signaling promotes hematopoietic precursor cell commitment to granulocyte development during the granulopoietic response to Escherichia coli bacteremia

In response to severe bacterial infection, bone marrow hematopoietic activity shifts toward promoting granulopoiesis. The underlying cell signaling mechanisms remain obscure. To study the role of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/stem cell antigen-1 (Sca-1) signaling in this process, bacteremia was induced in mice by intravenous injection of Escherichia coli. A subgroup of animals also received intravenous 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU). In a separate set of experiments, bone marrow lineage-negative (lin(-)) stem cell growth factor receptor-positive (c-kit(+)) Sca-1(-) cells containing primarily common myeloid progenitors were cultured in vitro without or with E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In genotypic background control mice, bacteremia significantly upregulated Sca-1 expression by lin(-) c-kit(+) cells, as reflected by a marked increase in BrdU-negative lin(-) c-kit(+) Sca-1(+) cells in the bone marrow. In mice with the TLR4 gene deletion, this bacteremia-evoked Sca-1 response was blocked. In vitro, LPS induced a dose-dependent increase in Sca-1 expression by cultured marrow lin(-) c-kit(+) Sca-1(-) cells. LPS-induced upregulation of Sca-1 expression was regulated at the transcriptional level. Inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK) activity with the specific inhibitor SP600125 suppressed LPS-induced upregulation of Sca-1 expression by marrow lin(-) c-kit(+) Sca-1(-) cells. Engagement of Sca-1 with anti-Sca-1 antibodies enhanced the expression of Sfpi1 spleen focus-forming virus (SFFV) proviral integration 1 (PU.1) in marrow lin(-) c-kit(+) Sca-1(-) cells cultured with LPS. Sca-1 null mice failed to maintain the marrow pool of granulopoietic cells following bacteremia. These results demonstrate that TLR4/Sca-1 signaling plays an important role in the regulation of hematopoietic precursor cell programming and their enhancement of granulocyte lineage commitment in response to E. coli bacteremia.

Prostate stem cell antigen rs2294008 polymorphism differentially contributes to Helicobacter pylori-negative gastric cancer among various populations in China

Gastric cancer is a lethal disease with a high mortality rate. Studies have suggested that prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) rs2294008 polymorphism is associated with gastric cancer (GC). In this case-control study, we investigated rs2294008 polymorphism in the Tibet, Hui and Han nationalities in the Qinghai area of China. Genomic DNA was extracted from the peripheral blood of 286, 315 and 350 healthy volunteers and from 219, 233 and 265 Helicobacter pylori-negative non-cardia GC patients from the Tibet, Hui and Han populations, respectively. The rs2294008 polymorphism was analyzed by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography. rs2294008 CT and TT genotypes were associated with GC both in the Tibet and Han populations (adjusted OR=1.51, 1.47, 2.01, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.04-2.19, 1.05-2.06, 1.04-3.88, 1.03-3.34; P=0.030, 0.025, 0.039, 0.040, respectively). rs2294008 TT genotype was associated with GC in the Hui population (adjusted OR=2.14; 95% CI, 1.29-3.55; P=0.003). Furthermore, when stratified by histopathology, the rs2294008 CT and TT genotypes were associated with diffuse GC in the Tibet and Han nationalities (adjusted OR=1.93, 1.73, 2.69, 2.86; 95% CI, 1.09-3.44, 1.01-2.95, 1.06-6.84, 1.27-6.46; P=0.025, 0.045, 0.038, 0.011, respectively). However, the rs2294008 TT genotype was associated with both intestinal and diffuse types of GC (adjusted OR=2.10, 2.21; 95% CI, 1.17-3.75, 1.12-4.38; P=0.012, 0.023, respectively) and the rs2294008 CT genotype was only associated with intestinal-type GC in the Hui nationalitiy group (adjusted OR=1.60; 95% CI, 1.04-2.47; P=0.034). The results therefore showed that rs2294008 may differentially contribute to GC among different nationalities in one area and its role is independent from Helicobacter pylori-infection.

Ly6 family proteins in neutrophil biology

The murine Ly6 complex was identified 35 years ago using antisera to lymphocytes. With advances in mAb development, molecular cloning, and genome sequencing, >20 structurally related genes have been identified within this complex on chromosome 15. All members of the Ly6 family and their human homologues share the highly conserved LU domain and most also possess a GPI anchor. Interestingly, many Ly6 proteins are expressed in a lineage-specific fashion, and their expression often correlates with stages of differentiation. As a result, Ly6 proteins are frequently used as surface markers for leukocyte subset identification and targets for antibody-mediated depletion. Murine neutrophils display prominent surface expression of several Ly6 proteins, including Ly6B, Ly6C, and Ly6G. Although the physiology of most Ly6 proteins is not well understood, a role in neutrophil functions, such as migration, is recognized increasingly. In this review, we will provide an overview of the Ly6 complex and discuss, in detail, the specific Ly6 proteins implicated in neutrophil biology.

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells in transplantation and cancer

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are myeloid cells that suppress the immune response, a definition that reflects both their origin and their function. As negative regulators of the immune response, MDSC represent a novel therapeutic approach for manipulating the immune system toward tolerance or immunity. MDSC are present in cancer patients and tumor-bearing mice and are in part responsible for the inhibition of the cell-mediated immune response against the tumor. Our laboratories investigate the immunologic mechanisms of tumor acceptance mediated by MDSC, which can be exploited to prevent allograft rejection in transplantation. A better understanding of MDSC biology will open new avenues for therapeutic intervention, either by inhibiting their function (i.e. in cancer patients), or by enhancing their suppressive effects and promoting their expansion (i.e. in organ transplantation and alloimmune responses). In this review, we summarize some of the critical aspects of the immunoregulatory function of MDSC in cancer and transplantation and discuss their potential clinical applications.

Expression of LY6D is induced at the surface of MCF10A cells by X-ray irradiation

In order to identify membrane proteins whose expression is induced by X-ray irradiation, we developed an antibody (Ab)-directed strategy using a phage Ab library. X-Ray-irradiated cells were screened with a phage Ab library in the presence of a large excess of polyclonal Abs prepared against membrane proteins that are commonly present at the surface of both X-ray-irradiated and nonirradiated cells. After isolation of Ab that bound only to X-ray-irradiated cells, the antigen was identified using MS. Using this approach, we found that expression of LY6D is induced in MCF10A cells by X-ray irradiation. The induction of LY6D expression is triggered through a pathway regulated by ATM, CHK2 and p53. This method is a new Ab-directed proteomic strategy for analysis of membrane proteins, and is applicable to various biological phenomena in situations in which both target molecule-expressing cells and nonexpressing cells are available.

Identification and structural characterization of a new three-finger toxin hemachatoxin from Hemachatus haemachatus venom

Snake venoms are rich sources of biologically active proteins and polypeptides. Three-finger toxins are non-enzymatic proteins present in elapid (cobras, kraits, mambas and sea snakes) and colubrid venoms. These proteins contain four conserved disulfide bonds in the core to maintain the three-finger folds. Although all three-finger toxins have similar fold, their biological activities are different. A new three-finger toxin (hemachatoxin) was isolated from Hemachatus haemachatus (Ringhals cobra) venom. Its amino acid sequence was elucidated, and crystal structure was determined at 2.43 Å resolution. The overall fold is similar to other three-finger toxins. The structure and sequence analysis revealed that the fold is maintained by four highly conserved disulfide bonds. It exhibited highest similarity to particularly P-type cardiotoxins that are known to associate and perturb the membrane surface with their lipid binding sites. Also, the increased B value of hemachotoxin loop II suggests that loop II is flexible and may remain flexible until its interaction with membrane phospholipids. Based on the analysis, we predict hemachatoxin to be cardiotoxic/cytotoxic and our future experiments will be directed to characterize the activity of hemachatoxin.

Lack of association between the rs2294008 polymorphism in the prostate stem cell antigen gene and colorectal neoplasia: a case-control and immunohistochemical study

Background

Prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several solid tumours, either due to changes in protein expression, or through association with the rs2294008 polymorphism in the PSCA gene. To our knowledge, the role of PSCA in the development of colorectal neoplasia has not been explored. We performed a genotyping study to assess for associations between the rs2294008 polymorphism and risk of adenomatous polyps and colorectal cancer. DNA samples were available from 388 individuals with colorectal neoplasia and 496 controls, all of whom had undergone screening colonoscopy. In addition, we performed immunohistochemical staining for PSCA in colonic tissue representing all stages of the adenoma-carcinoma sequence.

Results

No genotypic associations were found between the rs2294008 polymorphism and the risk of colorectal adenomata or cancer. Immunohistochemical staining did not reveal any alteration in PSCA expression accompanying the adenoma-carcinoma sequence.

Conclusion

From these data it seems unlikely that PSCA has a role in the initiation or progression of colorectal neoplasia.

Sca-1 knockout impairs myocardial and cardiac progenitor cell function

RATIONALE

Cardiac progenitor cells are important for maintenance of myocardial structure and function, but molecular mechanisms governing these progenitor cells remain obscure and require elucidation to enhance regenerative therapeutic approaches.

OBJECTIVE

To understand consequences of stem cell antigen-1 (Sca-1) deletion on functional properties of c-kit+ cardiac progenitor cells and myocardial performance using a Sca-1 knock-out/green fluorescent protein knock-in reporter mouse (ScaKI).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Genetic deletion of Sca-1 results in early-onset cardiac contractile deficiency as determined by echocardiography and hemodynamics as well as age-associated hypertrophy. Resident cardiac progenitor cells in ScaKI mice do not respond to pathological damage in vivo, consistent with observations of impaired growth and survival of ScaKI cardiac progenitor cells in vitro. The molecular basis of the defect in ScaKI cardiac progenitor cells is associated with increased canonical Wnt signaling pathway activation consistent with molecular characteristics of lineage commitment.

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic deletion of Sca-1 causes primary cardiac defects in myocardial contractility and repair consistent with impairment of resident cardiac progenitor cell proliferative capacity associated with altered canonical Wnt signaling.

Sca-1 is involved in the adhesion of myosphere cells to αVβ3 integrin

A myosphere cell is a unique type of muscle stem cell that is able to maintain its pre-myogenic state in culture over time. These cells are propagated in culture as free-floating, non-adherent spheres. We believe that the 3-dimensional adhesive cell-cell interactions involved in maintaining the sphere-like myosphere structures are also involved in maintaining their longevity in culture. We found that Sca-1, which is highly expressed by myosphere cells, plays a role in the growth and the formation of the myospheres. In comparing adhesion molecules expressed by 3-dimensionally grown myosphere cells to those expressed by 2-dimensionally grown primary myoblasts, we found that there was a distinct difference in the expression of β3 integrin. Upon further investigation we discovered that there is an adhesive interaction between Sca-1(+) cells and αVβ3 integrin. Here we show that Sca-1(+) cells (myosphere cells and NIH3T3 cells) adhere to αVβ3 integrin and that Sca-1(-) cells (primary myoblasts) do not adhere. The interaction between Sca-1 and αVβ3 integrin was confirmed using antibody blocking, shRNA knockdown of Sca-1 in Sca-1(+) cells, and by expressing Sca-1 cDNA in Sca-1(-) cells, which demonstrated that the level of adhesion of these cells to αVβ3 integrin was dependent on the presence of Sca-1. Additionally, we found that the co-expression of Sca-1 and β3 resulted in significantly greater adhesion of Sca-1(+) cells to αVβ3 integrin. In conclusion, our data indicate that Sca-1 is involved in maintaining the 3-dimensional myosphere cell-cell contacts and that Sca-1 is involved in the binding of cells to αVβ3 integrin.

Identification and expression of a novel member of Ly-6 superfamily in zebrafish Denio rerio

Ly-6 superfamily members are present in many metazoans and are divided into two groups: secreted proteins and glycosylphosphatidyl inositol (GPI)-anchored membrane proteins. They both contain one or more conserved domain identified as Ly-6/uPAR (LU) domain and play key roles in cellular adhesion and signaling. Here, we identify a novel member, lymphocyte antigen-6 epidermis (lye), of Ly-6 superfamily in zebrafish. In silico analyses revealed that lye codes for a predicted GPI-anchored membrane protein containing a conserved LU domain and 10 position-specific conserved cysteines typical of known Ly-6 proteins. Whole mount in situ hybridization showed that lye is predominantly expressed in epidermis. We thus named the gene lye, highlighting it is expressed in epidermis. Lye exhibits a dynamic expression pattern during development, which is initially expressed in enveloping layer at gastrula stage, then expressed in epidermis at later stages. It is also expressed in olfactory placode at 24 h post-fertilization. Subsequently, epidermal expression of lye becomes weaker gradually, whereas the expression in pharyngeal arch and pectoral fin increases at 2 and 3 days post-fertilization. Our study lays a foundation for further investigation of lye roles in early developmental stages.

Alcohol impairs the myeloid proliferative response to bacteremia in mice by inhibiting the stem cell antigen-1/ERK pathway

Enhancement of stem cell Ag-1 (Sca-1) expression by myeloid precursors promotes the granulopoietic response to bacterial infection. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. ERK pathway activation strongly enhances proliferation of hematopoietic progenitor cells. In this study, we investigated the role of Sca-1 in promoting ERK-dependent myeloid lineage proliferation and the effects of alcohol on this process. Thirty minutes after i.p. injection of alcohol, mice received i.v. challenge with 5 × 10(7) Escherichia coli for 8 or 24 h. A subset of mice received i.v. BrdU injection 20 h after challenge. Bacteremia increased Sca-1 expression, ERK activation, and proliferation of myeloid and granulopoietic precursors. Alcohol administration suppressed this response and impaired granulocyte production. Sca-1 expression positively correlated with ERK activation and cell cycling, but negatively correlated with myeloperoxidase content in granulopoietic precursors. Alcohol intoxication suppressed ERK activation in granulopoietic precursors and proliferation of these cells during bacteremia. Granulopoietic precursors in Sca-1(-/-) mice failed to activate ERK signaling and could not increase granulomacrophagic CFU activity following bacteremia. These data indicate that Sca-1 expression promotes ERK-dependent myeloid cell proliferation during bacteremia. Suppression of this response could represent an underlying mechanism for developing myelosuppression in alcohol-abusing hosts with severe bacterial infection.

Stimulation of Ly-6G on neutrophils in LPS-primed mice induces platelet-activating factor (PAF)-mediated anaphylaxis-like shock

Previously, two anti-Ly-6G mAb-RB6-8C5 and 1A8-have been used to deplete neutrophils in mice and to clarify their involvement in immune responses. During the course of experiments on neutrophil depletion, we noticed that i.v. injection of RB6-8C5 or 1A8 induced anaphylaxis-like shock in mice pretreated i.v. with LPS. Signs of shock, such as hypothermia, appeared within a few minutes, and the mice died of shock within 20 min of the antibody injection. In vivo experiments, including depletion of various cell types, indicated that neutrophils and macrophages (but not platelets, basophils, or mast cells) are involved in the shock. Experiments using various drugs and gene-targeted mice demonstrated that PAF is the central mediator of the shock. Optimal LPS priming required at least 1 h, and the priming was associated with neutrophil accumulation within pulmonary and hepatic blood vessels. Consistently, following 1A8 injection into LPS-pretreated mice, the mRNA for LysoPAFAT (a PAF biosynthetic enzyme) was markedly up-regulated in neutrophils accumulated in the lung but not in macrophages. These results suggest that (1) stimulation of Ly-6G on LPS-primed neutrophils induces PAF-mediated anaphylaxis-like shock in mice, (2) neutrophils are primed by LPS during and/or after their accumulation in lung and liver to rapidly induce LysoPAFAT, and (3) macrophages may play a pivotal role in the priming phase and/or in the challenge phase by unknown mechanisms. These findings may be related to adult respiratory distress syndrome, although the natural ligand for Ly-6G remains to be identified.

Suppression of the stem cell antigen-1 response and granulocyte lineage expansion by alcohol during septicemia

OBJECTIVE

Granulocytopenia frequently occurs in alcohol abusers with severe bacterial infection, which strongly correlates with poor clinical outcome. Knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying the granulopoietic response to bacterial infection remains limited. This study investigated the involvement of stem cell antigen-1 expression by granulocyte lineage-committed progenitors in the granulopoietic response to septicemia and how alcohol affected this response.

DESIGN

: Laboratory investigation.

SETTING

University laboratory.

SUBJECTS

Male Balb/c mice.

INTERVENTIONS

Thirty mins after intraperitoneal injection of alcohol (20% ethanol in saline at 5 g of ethanol/kg) or saline, mice received an intravenous Escherichia coli challenge.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

E. coli septicemia activated stem cell antigen-1 expression by marrow immature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 precursors which correlated with an increase in proliferation, granulocyte macrophage colony-forming unit production, and expansion of this granulopoietic precursor cell pool. Acute alcohol treatment suppressed stem cell antigen-1 activation and inhibited the infection-induced increases in proliferation, granulocyte macrophage colony-forming unit production, and expansion the of immature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 precursor cell population. Consequently, recovery of the marrow mature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 cell population after E. coli challenge was impaired. Stem cell antigen-1 was induced in sorted granulocyte differentiation antigen-1, stem cell antigen-1' cells by lipopolysaccharide-stimulated C-Jun kinase activation that was also inhibited by alcohol. Furthermore, stem cell antigen-1 knockout mice failed to expand the marrow immature granulocyte differentiation antigen-1 cell pool and demonstrated fewer newly produced granulocytes in the circulation after the E. coli challenge.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol suppresses the stem cell antigen-1 response in granulocyte lineage-committed precursors and restricts granulocyte production during septicemia, which may serve as a novel mechanism underlying impaired host defense in alcohol abusers.

Genetic variation in the prostate stem cell antigen gene and upper gastrointestinal cancer in white individuals

BACKGROUND & AIMS

An association between gastric cancer and the rs2294008 (C>T) polymorphism in the prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) gene has been reported for several Asian populations. We set out to determine whether such an association exists in white individuals.

METHODS

We genotyped 166 relatives of gastric cancer patients, including 43 Helicobacter pylori-infected subjects with hypochlorhydria and gastric atrophy, 65 infected subjects without these abnormalities, 58 H pylori-negative relatives, and 100 population controls. Additionally, a population-based study of chronic atrophic gastritis provided 533 cases and 1054 controls. We then genotyped 2 population-based, case-control studies of upper gastrointestinal cancer: the first included 312 gastric cancer cases and 383 controls; the second included 309 gastric cancer cases, 159 esophageal cancer cases, and 211 controls. Odds ratios were computed from logistic models and adjusted for confounding variables.

RESULTS

Carriage of the risk allele (T) of rs2294008 in PSCA was associated with chronic atrophic gastritis (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 1.5; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1-1.9) and noncardia gastric cancer (OR, 1.9; 95% CI: 1.3-2.8). The association was strongest for the diffuse histologic type (OR, 3.2; 95% CI: 1.2-10.7). An inverse association was observed between carriage of the risk allele and gastric cardia cancer (OR, 0.5; 95% CI: 0.3-0.9), esophageal adenocarcinoma (OR, 0.5; 95% CI: 0.3-0.9), and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (OR, 0.4; 95% CI: 0.2-0.9).

CONCLUSIONS

The rs2294008 polymorphism in PSCA increases the risk of noncardia gastric cancer and its precursors in white individuals but protects against proximal cancers.

Wound macrophages as key regulators of repair: origin, phenotype, and function

Recent results call for the reexamination of the phenotype of wound macrophages and their role in tissue repair. These results include the characterization of distinct circulating monocyte populations with temporally restricted capacities to migrate into wounds and the observation that the phenotype of macrophages isolated from murine wounds partially reflects those of their precursor monocytes, changes with time, and does not conform to current macrophage classifications. Moreover, findings in genetically modified mice lacking macrophages have confirmed that these cells are essential to normal wound healing because their depletion results in retarded and abnormal repair. This mini-review focuses on current knowledge of the phenotype of wound macrophages, their origin and fate, and the specific macrophage functions that underlie their reparative role in injured tissues, including the regulation of the cellular infiltration of the wound and the production of transforming growth factor-β and vascular endothelial growth factor.