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Verma N, Pandit S, Gupta PK, Kumar S, Kumar A, Giri SK, Yadav G, Priya K. Occupational health hazards and wide spectrum of genetic damage by the organic solvent fumes at the workplace: A critical appraisal. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:30954-30966. [PMID: 35102507 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-18889-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Long-term exposure to organic solvents is known to affect human health posing serious occupational hazards. Organic solvents are genotoxic, and they can cause genetic changes in the exposed employees' somatic or germ cells. Chemicals such as benzene, toluene, and gasoline induce an excessive amount of genotoxicity results either in genetic polymorphism or culminates in deleterious mutations when concentration crosses the threshold limits. The impact of genotoxicity is directly related to the time of exposure, types, and quantum of solvent. Genotoxicity affects almost all the physiological systems, but the most vulnerable ones are the nervous system, reproductive system, and blood circulatory system. Based on the available literature report, we propose to evaluate the outcomes of such chemicals on the exposed humans at the workplace. Attempts would be made to ascertain if the long-term exposure makes a person resistant to such chemicals. This may seem to be a far-fetched idea but has not been studied. The health prospect of this study is envisaged to complement the already existing data facilitating a deeper understanding of the genotoxicity across the population. This would also demonstrate if it correlates with the demographic profile of the population and contributes to comorbidity and epidemiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Verma
- Deptt. of Life Sciences, SBSR, Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP, 201310, India
| | - Soumya Pandit
- Deptt. of Life Sciences, SBSR, Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP, 201310, India
| | - Piyush Kumar Gupta
- Deptt. of Life Sciences, SBSR, Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP, 201310, India
| | - Sanjay Kumar
- Deptt. of Life Sciences, SBSR, Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP, 201310, India
| | - Anil Kumar
- Center of Medical Biotechnology, Maharishi Dayanand University, Rohtak Haryana, HR, 124001, India
| | - Shiv Kumar Giri
- Department of Biotechnology, Maharaja Agrasen University, Baddi, HP, India
| | - Gulab Yadav
- Department of Biotechnology, Maharaja Agrasen University, Baddi, HP, India
| | - Kanu Priya
- Deptt. of Life Sciences, SBSR, Sharda University, Greater Noida, UP, 201310, India.
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Varona-Uribe M, Ibáñez-Pinilla M, Briceno-Ayala L, Herrera D, Chuaire-Noack L, Martínez-Agüero M, Sánchez Corredor MC, Palma-Parra R, Narvaez D, Groot de Restrepo H. Biomarkers of susceptibility and effect in car painters exposed to organic solvents. Colomb Med (Cali) 2020; 51:e3646. [PMID: 32952228 PMCID: PMC7467118 DOI: 10.25100/cm.v51i1.3646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Car painters are routinely exposed to organic solvents classified as carcinogenic and mutagenic substances. Objective To characterize the population susceptibility and evaluate the genotoxic effects of exposure to organic solvents. Methods A cross-sectional study comparing a group of car painters exposed to organic solvents with a non-exposed group. CYP2E1 polymorphisms and the presence of micronuclei in lymphocytes were determined. Results One hundred twenty-two workers participated in the study: 62 who worked in car paint shops and were exposed to solvents, and 60 who were not exposed. There were statistically significant differences between the two groups regarding micronucleated cells and nucleoplasmic bridges frequencies (p= 0.042 and p= 0.046, respectively; exact likelihood ratio). Significant differences were found at the interaction between the CYP2E1 genotype c1c1 and occupational exposure to solvents, with higher frequencies of micronuclei (p= 0.013) and micronucleated cells (p= 0.015). However, when the frequencies of micronuclei, micronucleated cells and nucleoplasmic bridges in the exposure group were compared between the c1c1 and c2c2/c1c2 allele groups of the CYP2E1 polymorphism, statistically significant differences were found. Conclusions This study confirms that when workers with CYP2E1 polymorphisms, specifically the c1c1 genotype, are exposed to organic solvents, they are more likely to have somatic cell mutations, a condition associated with increased susceptibility to diseases such as cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela Varona-Uribe
- Universidad del Rosario, Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | | | - Diego Herrera
- Universidad del Rosario, Escuela de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Lilian Chuaire-Noack
- Universidad del Valle, Facultad de Salud, Escuela de Ciencias Básicas, Cali, Colombia
| | - María Martínez-Agüero
- Universidad del Rosario, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Matemáticas, Bogotá, Colombia
| | | | | | - Diana Narvaez
- Universidad de los Andes, Laboratorio de Genética Humana, Bogotá, Colombia
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Dos Reis Filho AP, Silveira MAD, Demarco NR, D'Arce LPG. Increased DNA Damage, Instability and Cytokinesis Defects in Occupationally Exposed Car Painters. In Vivo 2020; 33:1807-1811. [PMID: 31662506 DOI: 10.21873/invivo.11672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIM Car painting is considered an occupational exposure job with high risk for cancer development, due to the association with harmful chemicals and mutagens. This study aimed to profile car painters occupationally exposed and determine its association with DNA damage and genomic instability. MATERIALS AND METHODS We collected a questionnaire and buccal cells of 74 individuals (37 car painters and 37 non-exposed workers) paired by age, alcohol and smoking habits. The number of pyknotic cells, karyolitic cells, karyorrhetic cells, condensed chromatin, binucleated cells, basal cells, differentiated cells (DIFF), micronucleated cells and nuclear buds were evaluated using the Buccal Micronucleus Cytome Assay protocol. RESULTS A statistically significant increase was observed in all parameters (p<0.05) in the exposed group, but DIFF showed a statistically significant decrease (p<0.001), compared to the control group. CONCLUSION In association with the poor work environment and lack of personal and collective protective equipment, occupational exposure of car painters leads to high DNA damage, genomic instability and alterations in cellular kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Pedro Dos Reis Filho
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Colegiado de Ciências Biológicas, State University of Western Paraná, Parana, Brazil
| | - Maruhen Amir Datsch Silveira
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Colegiado de Ciências Biológicas, State University of Western Paraná, Parana, Brazil
| | - Natani Ribeiro Demarco
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Colegiado de Ciências Biológicas, State University of Western Paraná, Parana, Brazil
| | - Luciana Paula Gregio D'Arce
- Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Colegiado de Ciências Biológicas, State University of Western Paraná, Parana, Brazil
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Londoño-Velasco E, Martínez-Perafán F, Carvajal S, García-Vallejo F, Hoyos-Giraldo LS. Evaluation of oxidative and methylating DNA damage in painters occupationally exposed to organic solvents and paints. BIOMEDICA : REVISTA DEL INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE SALUD 2019; 39:464-477. [PMID: 31584761 PMCID: PMC7357369 DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.4289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: The exposure to organic solvents and paints has been associated with genotoxicity and a greater risk of neoplasms. However, the type of DNA damage induced in humans by the exposure to these compounds, which would help explain the mechanisms of their genotoxicity, is still not fully characterized. Due to inadequate practices of occupational safety, car painters in the informal sector are a highly exposed group to organic solvents and paints. Objective: To identify the oxidative and methylating damage in the DNA of lymphocytes of car painters exposed to organic solvents and paints. Materials and methods: Isolated peripheral blood lymphocytes from 62 painters and 62 unexposed subjects were analyzed by the modified high-throughput comet assay with the Fpg and AlkA enzymes. The categories used for the evaluation of the DNA damage were basal damage (without enzymes), oxidative and methylating damage. The measurement parameter used to establish the damage was the percentage of DNA in the tail. Results: The percentage of DNA in the tail was higher in the exposed group compared to the unexposed group (p<0.05). In the exposed group, this percentage was higher in the oxidative damage category than the baseline (16.50 vs. 12.87; p<0.001), whereas methylating damage did not show significant differences (14.00 vs. 12.87; p>0.05). Conclusion: In this study, exposure to organic solvents and paints was associated with an increase in oxidative lesions in the DNA of car painters’ lymphocytes, such as the production of 8-oxodG and other formamidopyrimidine products which are considered highly mutagenic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Londoño-Velasco
- Grupo de Investigación en Toxicología Genética y Citogenética, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales Exactas y de la Educación, Universidad del Cauca, Popayán, Colombia; Departamento de Ciencias Básicas de la Salud, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Cali, Colombia.
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Bonassi S, Fenech M. Micronuclei and Their Association with Infertility, Pregnancy Complications, Developmental Defects, Anaemias, Inflammation, Diabetes, Chronic Kidney Disease, Obesity, Cardiovascular Disease, Neurodegenerative Diseases and Cancer. THE MICRONUCLEUS ASSAY IN TOXICOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/9781788013604-00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Micronuclei (MN) are a strong cytogenetic indicator of a catastrophic change in the genetic structure and stability of a cell because they originate from either chromosome breaks or whole chromosomes that have been lost from the main nucleus during cell division. The resulting genetic abnormalities can to lead to cellular malfunction, altered gene expression and impaired regenerative capacity. Furthermore, MN are increased as a consequence of genetic defects in DNA repair, deficiency in micronutrients required for DNA replication and repair and exposure to genotoxic chemicals and ultraviolet or ionising radiation. For all of these reasons, the measurement of MN has become one of the best-established methods to measure DNA damage in humans at the cytogenetic level. This chapter is a narrative review of the current evidence for the association of increased MN frequency with developmental and degenerative diseases. In addition, important knowledge gaps are identified, and recommendations for future studies required to consolidate the evidence are provided. The great majority of published studies show a significant association of increased MN in lymphocytes and/or buccal cells with infertility, pregnancy complications, developmental defects, anaemias, inflammation, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. However, the strongest evidence is from prospective studies showing that MN frequency in lymphocytes predicts cancer risk and cardiovascular disease mortality.
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Silva IR, Ramos MCAS, Arantes LMRB, Lengert AVH, Oliveira MA, Cury FP, Martins Pereira G, Santos AG, Barbosa F, Vasconcellos PC, Cuenin C, Herceg Z, Silveira HCS. Evaluation of DNA Methylation Changes and Micronuclei in Workers Exposed to a Construction Environment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:E902. [PMID: 30871143 PMCID: PMC6466300 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16060902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Methylation levels in tumor-suppressor genes and repetitive sequences have previously been used to study the relationship between environmental air pollution and epigenetic changes related to cancer. In this study, we measured the methylation profiles of the promoter regions CDKN2A, MLH1 and APC and the repetitive sequence LINE-1 in 59 workers exposed to the construction environment and in 49 unexposed workers. We also evaluated the micronuclei frequency and levels of trace elements in the blood of all workers. We evaluated of levels of particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at the construction site to characterize the environmental exposure. Our findings demonstrated that exposed workers exhibited significantly higher average levels of promoter methylation of CDKN2A, APC, and MLH1 genes and increased hypomethylation of the LINE-1 in comparison to unexposed workers (all p < 0.05). A higher frequency of micronuclei was observed in the exposed group (2 ± 2) compared to the unexposed group (1 ± 1) with p < 0.001. High levels of particulate matter (51⁻841 μg/m³) and some PAHs were found in samples from the construction environment. In summary, we provide evidence of increased DNA damage and altered DNA methylation of exposed workers, suggesting that genomic approaches to biomonitoring may be an effective way of estimating future cancer risk for construction workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isana R Silva
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Manoela C A S Ramos
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Lídia M R B Arantes
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - André V H Lengert
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Marco A Oliveira
- Center for Research Support (NAP), Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Fernanda P Cury
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | | | - Fernando Barbosa
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-903, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | | | - Cyrille Cuenin
- Epigenetics Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 150 Cours Albert-Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France.
| | - Zdenko Herceg
- Epigenetics Group, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 150 Cours Albert-Thomas, 69008 Lyon, France.
| | - Henrique C S Silveira
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos 14784-400, São Paulo, Brazil.
- University of Cuiabá, Campus Beira Rio, Cuiabá 78008-000, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
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Espinoza F, Cecchini L, Morote J, Marcos R, Pastor S. Micronuclei frequency in urothelial cells of bladder cancer patients, as a biomarker of prognosis. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2019; 60:168-173. [PMID: 30284731 DOI: 10.1002/em.22252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 09/06/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
It has been suggested that the frequency of micronuclei (MN) in defoliated urothelial cells could be used as a biomarker for both the potential risk of bladder cancer (BC) and its progression. To prove this we have carried out a large study evaluating the MN frequency in a group of 383 hospital patients submitted to cystoscopy. From them, 77 were negative in their first cystoscopy, and were considered as a reference group; 79 were positive and were classified as patients with tumor; and 227 with previous bladder cancer submitted to follow-up monitoring were negative and classified as BC patients without tumor. Vesical washes were processed and the obtained cells were placed onto microscope slides for further scoring. To minimize scoring misinterpretations, cells were stained with DAPI, and observed in a fluorescence microscope. Results indicated that patients with BC presented higher incidence of MN than controls (18.29 ± 10.04 vs. 14.40 ± 8.49, P = 0.010, respectively). When individuals with BC were classified depending on whether the BC was a primary or a recidivated tumor, those patients with recurrent BC presented a higher frequency of MN than those where BC was detected for the first time (19.22 ± 9.59 vs. 16.60 ± 10.78, respectively); nevertheless, this increase did not reach statistical significance. Finally, a positive and significant correlation was observed between MN frequency and the degree of the tumor (P = 0.038). All this together would confirm the potentiality of the MN frequency in urothelial defoliated cells assay to be used, at least, in the follow-up and surveillance of BC patients. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 60: 168-173, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felicidad Espinoza
- Grup de Mutagènesi, Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lluis Cecchini
- Department d' Urologia, Hospital del Mar-Parc de Salut Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Morote
- Department d' Urologia, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ricard Marcos
- Grup de Mutagènesi, Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
- Consortium for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Carlos III Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
| | - Susana Pastor
- Grup de Mutagènesi, Departament de Genètica i de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Campus de Bellaterra, 08193, Barcelona, Spain
- Consortium for Biomedical Research in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Carlos III Institute of Health, Madrid, Spain
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Abstract
DNA methylation alterations are common in urothelial carcinoma, a prevalent cancer worldwide caused predominantly by chemical carcinogens. Recent studies have proposed sets of hypermethylated genes as promising diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers from urine or tissue samples, which require validation. Other studies have revealed intriguing links between specific carcinogens and DNA methylation alterations in cancer tissues or blood that might clarify carcinogenesis mechanisms and aid prevention. Like DNA methylation alterations, mutations in chromatin regulators are frequent, underlining the importance of epigenetic changes. However, the relations between the two changes and their functions in urothelial carcinogenesis remain unclear. Transcription factor genes with altered methylation deserve particular interest. Elucidating the functional impact of methylation changes is a prerequisite for their therapeutic targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wolfgang A Schulz
- Department of Urology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Moorenstr. 5, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Goering
- Department of Pathology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Duesseldorf, Germany
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Chappell G, Pogribny IP, Guyton KZ, Rusyn I. Epigenetic alterations induced by genotoxic occupational and environmental human chemical carcinogens: A systematic literature review. MUTATION RESEARCH. REVIEWS IN MUTATION RESEARCH 2016; 768:27-45. [PMID: 27234561 PMCID: PMC4884606 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that epigenetic alterations play an important role in chemically-induced carcinogenesis. Although the epigenome and genome may be equally important in carcinogenicity, the genotoxicity of chemical agents and exposure-related transcriptomic responses have been more thoroughly studied and characterized. To better understand the evidence for epigenetic alterations of human carcinogens, and the potential association with genotoxic endpoints, we conducted a systematic review of published studies of genotoxic carcinogens that reported epigenetic endpoints. Specifically, we searched for publications reporting epigenetic effects for the 28 agents and occupations included in Monograph Volume 100F of the International Agency for the Research on Cancer (IARC) that were classified as "carcinogenic to humans" (Group 1) with strong evidence of genotoxic mechanisms of carcinogenesis. We identified a total of 158 studies that evaluated epigenetic alterations for 12 of these 28 carcinogenic agents and occupations (1,3-butadiene, 4-aminobiphenyl, aflatoxins, benzene, benzidine, benzo[a]pyrene, coke production, formaldehyde, occupational exposure as a painter, sulfur mustard, and vinyl chloride). Aberrant DNA methylation was most commonly studied, followed by altered expression of non-coding RNAs and histone changes (totaling 85, 59 and 25 studies, respectively). For 3 carcinogens (aflatoxins, benzene and benzo[a]pyrene), 10 or more studies reported epigenetic effects. However, epigenetic studies were sparse for the remaining 9 carcinogens; for 4 agents, only 1 or 2 published reports were identified. While further research is needed to better identify carcinogenesis-associated epigenetic perturbations for many potential carcinogens, published reports on specific epigenetic endpoints can be systematically identified and increasingly incorporated in cancer hazard assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Chappell
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Igor P Pogribny
- National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR, USA
| | | | - Ivan Rusyn
- Department of Veterinary Integrative Biosciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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Londoño-Velasco E, Martínez-Perafán F, Carvajal-Varona S, García-Vallejo F, Hoyos-Giraldo LS. Assessment of DNA damage in car spray painters exposed to organic solvents by the high-throughput comet assay. Toxicol Mech Methods 2016; 26:238-42. [PMID: 26998723 DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2016.1158892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Occupational exposure as a painter is associated with DNA damage and development of cancer. Comet assay has been widely adopted as a sensitive and quantitative tool for DNA damage assessment at the individual cell level in populations exposed to genotoxics. The aim of this study was to assess the application of the high-throughput comet assay, to determine the DNA damage in car spray painters. The study population included 52 car spray painters and 52 unexposed subjects. A significant increase in the %TDNA median (p < 0.001) was observed in the exposed group in comparison to the unexposed group. Neither age (%TDNA: p = 0.913) nor time of exposure (%TDNA: p = 0.398) were significantly correlated with DNA damage. The car spray painters who consumed alcohol did not show a significant increase in DNA damage compared to nonalcohol consumers (p > 0.05). The results showed an increase in DNA breaks in car spray painters exposed to organic solvents and paints; furthermore, they demonstrated the application of high-throughput comet assay in an occupational exposure study to genotoxic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Londoño-Velasco
- a Department of Biology , Research Group Genetic Toxicology and Cytogenetics, Faculty of Natural, Exact Sciences and Education, Universidad del Cauca , Popayán, Cauca , Colombia .,b Department of Basic Sciences of Health , Faculty of Sciences of Health, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana seccional Cali , Cali, Valle del Cauca , Colombia , and
| | - Fabián Martínez-Perafán
- a Department of Biology , Research Group Genetic Toxicology and Cytogenetics, Faculty of Natural, Exact Sciences and Education, Universidad del Cauca , Popayán, Cauca , Colombia
| | - Silvio Carvajal-Varona
- a Department of Biology , Research Group Genetic Toxicology and Cytogenetics, Faculty of Natural, Exact Sciences and Education, Universidad del Cauca , Popayán, Cauca , Colombia
| | - Felipe García-Vallejo
- c Department of Physiologic Sciences , Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis, Faculty of Health, Universidad del Valle , Cali, Valle del Cauca , Colombia
| | - Luz Stella Hoyos-Giraldo
- a Department of Biology , Research Group Genetic Toxicology and Cytogenetics, Faculty of Natural, Exact Sciences and Education, Universidad del Cauca , Popayán, Cauca , Colombia
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