Estradiol reverses excitatory synapse loss in a cellular model of neuropsychiatric disorders

Research progress in estrogen as an adjunctive therapy for schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a chronic psychiatric disorder with complex etiology and diverse clinical manifestations, whose pathogenesis and triggering factors remain incompletely understood. Numerous studies have demonstrated significant gender differences in the age of onset, clinical presentation, disease progression, treatment efficacy, and prognosis among patients with schizophrenia. These differences are largely attributed to variations in sex hormone levels, with estrogen emerging as a key focus of research. Some studies suggest that adjunctive estrogen therapy during schizophrenia treatment not only alleviates symptoms but also reduces the required dosage of antipsychotic medications. A systematic review of research on estrogen as an adjunctive treatment for schizophrenia may provide new perspectives and references for future therapeutic strategies.

Role of estrogen in sex differences in memory, emotion and neuropsychiatric disorders

Estrogen regulates a wide range of neuronal functions in the brain, such as dendritic spine formation, remodeling of synaptic plasticity, cognition, neurotransmission, and neurodevelopment. Estrogen interacts with intracellular estrogen receptors (ERs) and membrane-bound ERs to produce its effect via genomic and non-genomic pathways. Any alterations in these pathways affect the number, size, and shape of dendritic spines in neurons associated with psychiatric diseases. Increasing evidence suggests that estrogen fluctuation causes changes in dendritic spine density, morphology, and synapse numbers of excitatory and inhibitory neurons differently in males and females. In this review, we discuss the role of estrogen hormone in rodents and humans based on sex differences. First, we explain estrogen role in learning and memory and show that a high estrogen level alleviates the deficits in learning and memory. Secondly, we point out that estrogen produces a striking difference in emotional memories in men and women, which leads them to display sex-specific differences in underlying neuronal signaling. Lastly, we discuss that fluctuations in estrogen levels in men and women are related to neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder (BPD), major depressive disorder (MDD), substance use disorder (SUD), and anxiety disorders.

Role of estrogen in treatment of female depression

Depression is a neurological disorder that profoundly affects human physical and mental health, resulting in various changes in the central nervous system. Despite several prominent hypotheses, such as the monoaminergic theory, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis theory, neuroinflammation, and neuroplasticity, the current understanding of depression's pathogenesis remains incomplete. Importantly, depression is a gender-dimorphic disorder, with women exhibiting higher incidence rates than men. Given estrogen's pivotal role in the menstrual cycle, it is reasonable to postulate that its fluctuating levels could contribute to the pathogenesis of depression. Estrogen acts by binding to a diversity of receptors, which are widely distributed in the central nervous system. An abundance of research has established that estrogen and its receptors play a crucial role in depression, spanning pathogenesis and treatment. In this comprehensive review, we provide an in-depth analysis of the fundamental role of estrogen and its receptors in depression, with a focus on neuroinflammation, neuroendocrinology, and neuroplasticity. Furthermore, we discuss potential mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of estrogen in the treatment of depression, which may pave the way for new antidepressant drug development and alternative treatment options.

Developmental effects of constitutive mTORC1 hyperactivity and environmental enrichment on structural synaptic plasticity and behaviour in a rat model of autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition causing a range of social and communication impairments. Although the role of multiple genes and environmental factors has been reported, the effects of the interplay between genes and environment on the onset and progression of the disease remains elusive. We housed wild-type (Tsc2+/+) and tuberous sclerosis 2 deficient (Tsc2+/-) Eker rats (ASD model) in individually ventilated cages or enriched conditions and conducted a series of behavioural tests followed by the histochemical analysis of dendritic spines and plasticity in three age groups (days 45, 90 and 365). The elevated plus-maze test revealed a reduction of anxiety by enrichment, whereas the mobility of young and adult Eker rats in the open field was lower compared to the wild type. In the social interaction test, an enriched environment reduced social contact in the youngest group and increased anogenital exploration in 90- and 365-day-old rats. Self-grooming was increased by environmental enrichment in young and adult rats and decreased in aged Eker rats. Dendritic spine counts revealed an increased spine density in the cingulate gyrus in adult Ekers irrespective of housing conditions, whereas spine density in hippocampal pyramidal neurons was comparable across all genotypes and groups. Morphometric analysis of dendritic spines revealed age-related changes in spine morphology and density, which were responsive to animal genotype and environment. Taken together, our findings suggest that under TSC2 haploinsufficiency and mTORC1 hyperactivity, the expression of behavioural signs and neuroplasticity in Eker rats can be differentially influenced by the developmental stage and environment.

The Mechanisms Underlying the Pharmacological Effects of GuiPi Decoction on Major Depressive Disorder based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a common affective disorder. GuiPi decoction (GPD) is used to treat depression in China, Japan, and Korea. However, its effective ingredients and antidepressant mechanisms remain unclear. We attempted to reveal the potential mechanisms of GPD in the treatment of MDD by network pharmacology and molecular docking. In addition, we conducted an enzymatic activity assay to validate the results of molecular docking.

METHODS

GPD-related compounds and targets, and MDD-related targets were retrieved from databases and literature. The herb-compound-target network was constructed by Cytoscape. The protein- protein interaction network was built using the STRING database to find key targets of GPD on MDD. Enrichment analysis of shared targets was analyzed by MetaCore database to obtain the potential pathway and biological process of GPD on MDD. The main active compounds treating MDD were screened by molecular docking. The PDE4s inhibitors were screened and verified by an enzyme activity assay.

RESULTS

GPD contained 1222 ingredients and 190 potential targets for anti-MDD. Possible biological processes regulated by GPD were neurophysiological processes, blood vessel morphogenesis, Camp Responsive Element Modulator (CREM) pathway, and Androgen Receptor (AR) signaling crosstalk in MDD. Potential pathways in MDD associated with GPD include neurotransmission, cell differentiation, androgen signaling, and estrogen signaling. Fumarine, m-cresol, quercetin, betasitosterol, fumarine, taraxasterol, and lupeol in GPD may be the targets of SLC6A4, monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), DRD2, OPRM1, HTR3A, Albumin (ALB), and NTRK1, respectively. The IC50 values of trifolin targeting Phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4A and girinimbine targeting PDE4B1 were 73.79 μM and 31.86 μM, respectively. The IC50 values of girinimbine and benzo[a]carbazole on PDE4B2 were 51.62 μM and 94.61 μM, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Different compounds in GPD may target the same protein, and the same component in GPD can target multiple targets. These results suggest that the effects of GPD on MDD are holistic and systematic, unlike the pattern of one drug-one target.

Cranial irradiation induces cognitive decline associated with altered dendritic spine morphology in the young rat hippocampus

OBJECTIVE

Therapeutic irradiation is commonly used to treat brain cancers but can induce cognitive dysfunction, especially in children. The mechanism is unknown but likely involves alterations in dendritic spine number and structure.

METHODS

To explore the impact of radiation exposure on the alteration of dendritic spine morphology in the hippocampus of young brains, 21-day-old Sprague-Dawley rats received cranial irradiation (10 Gy), and changes in spine density and morphology in dentate gyrus (DG) granules and CA1 pyramidal neurons were detected 1 and 3 months later by using Golgi staining. Moreover, we analyzed synapse-associated proteins within dendritic spines after irradiation.

RESULT

Our data showed that cognitive deficits were detected in young rats at both time points postirradiation, accompanied by morphological changes in dendritic spines. Our results revealed significant reductions in spine density in the DG at both 1 month (40.58%) and 3 months (28.92%) postirradiation. However, there was a decrease in spine density only at 1 month (33.29%) postirradiation in the basal dendrites of CA1 neurons and no significant changes in the apical dendrites of CA1 neurons at either time point. Notably, among our findings were the significant dynamic changes in spine morphology that persisted 3 months following cranial irradiation. Meanwhile, we found that depletion of the synapse-associated proteins PSD95 and Drebrin coincided with alterations in dendritic spines.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that the decreased levels of PSD95 and Drebrin after ionizing radiation may cause changes in synaptic plasticity by affecting the morphological structure of dendritic spines, blocking the functional connectivity pathways of the brain and leading to cognitive impairment. Although the mechanism involved is unclear, understanding how ionizing radiation affects young brain hippocampal tissue may be useful to gain new mechanistic insights into radiation-induced cognitive dysfunction.

Mechanism of saikogenin G against major depressive disorder determined by network pharmacology

Many classic decoctions of Chinese medicine including Radix Bupleuri are used to treat major depressive disorder (MDD). Saikosaponin D is a representative bioactive ingredient discovered in Radix Bupleuri. The mechanism of saikogenin G (SGG) as a metabolite in MDD remains unclear to date. This study aims to elucidate the mechanism of SGG in treating MDD with network pharmacology. We evaluated the drug likeness of SGG with SwissADME web tool and predicted its targets using the SwissTargetPrediction and PharmMapper. MDD-related targets were identified from the following databases: DisGeNET, DrugBank, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, and GeneCards. The common targets of SGG and MDD were imported to the STRING11.0 database, and then a protein-protein interaction network was constructed. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment were analyzed with DAVID 6.8 database. The molecular weight of SGG was 472.7 g/mol, the topological polar surface area was 69.92 A2 <140 A2, the octanol/water partition coefficient (Consensus LogP0/W) was 4.80, the rotatable bond was 1, the hydrogen bond donors was 3, and the hydrogen bond acceptors was 4. A total of 322 targets of SGG were obtained and there were 1724 MDD-related targets. A total of 78 overlapping genes were selected as targets of MDD treatment including albumin, insulin-like growth factor I, mitogen-activated protein kinase 1, proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src, and epidermal growth factor receptor. Gene ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes enrichment analysis suggested that proteoglycans in cancer, pathways in cancer, prostate cancer, hypoxia-inducible factor-1, central carbon metabolism in cancer, estrogen, PI3K-Akt, ErbB, Rap1, and prolactin signaling pathways played an important role(P < .0001). This study showed that SGG exhibits good drug-like properties and elucidated the potential mechanisms of SGG in treating MDD with regulating inflammation, energy metabolism, monoamine neurotransmitters, neuroplasticity, phosphocreatine-creatine kinase circuits, and so on.

Phytoestrogen genistein modulates neuron-microglia signaling in a mouse model of chronic social defeat stress

Microglia, resident immune cells in the brain, are shown to mediate the crosstalk between psychological stress and depression. Interestingly, increasing evidence indicates that sex hormones, particularly estrogen, are involved in the regulation of immune system. In this study, we aimed to understand the potential effects of chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) and genistein (GEN), an estrogenic compound of the plant origin, on neuron-microglia interactions in the mouse hippocampus. The time spent in the avoidance zone in the social interaction test was increased by CSDS 1 day after the exposure, while the avoidance behavior returned to control levels 14 days after the CSDS exposure. Similar results were obtained from the elevated plus-maze test. However, the immobility time in the forced swim test was increased by CSDS 14 days after the exposure, and the depression-related behavior was in part alleviated by GEN. The numerical densities of microglia in the hippocampus were increased by CSDS, and they were decreased by GEN. The voxel densities of synaptic structures and synaptic puncta colocalized with microglia were decreased by CSDS, and they were increased by GEN. Neither CSDS nor GEN affected the gene expressions of major pro-inflammatory cytokines. Conversely, the expression levels of genes related to neurotrophic factors were decreased by CSDS, and they were partially reversed by GEN. These findings show that GEN may in part alleviate stress-related symptoms, and the effects of GEN may be associated with the modulation of neuron-microglia signaling via chemokines and neurotrophic factors in the hippocampus.

Osthole Ameliorates Estrogen Deficiency-Induced Cognitive Impairment in Female Mice

Loss of endogenous estrogen and dysregulation of the estrogen receptor signaling pathways are associated with an increase in risk for cognitive deficit and depression in women after menopause. Estrogen therapy for menopause increases the risk of breast and ovarian cancers, and stroke. Therefore, it is critical to find an alternate treatment for menopausal women. Osthole (OST), a coumarin, has been reported to have neuroprotective effects. This study examined whether OST improves ovariectomy (OVX)-induced cognitive impairment, and alleviates anxiety- and depression-like behaviors induced by OVX in mice. Adult female C57BL/6J mice were ovariectomized and then treated with OST at a dose of 30 mg/kg for 14 days. At the end of the treatment period, behavioral tests were used to evaluate spatial learning and memory, recognition memory, anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. A cohort of the mice were sacrificed after 14 days of OST treatment and their hippocampi were collected for measurement of the proteins of interest using western blot. OVX-induced alteration in the levels of proteins was accompanied by cognitive deficit, anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. OST treatment improved cognitive deficit, alleviated anxiety- and depression-like behaviors induced by OVX, and reversed OVX-induced alterations in the levels of synaptic proteins and ERα, BDNF, TrKB, p-CREB, p-Akt and Rac1 in the hippocampus. Therefore, reversal of OVX-induced decrease in the levels of hippocampal proteins by OST might contribute to the effects of OST on improving cognitive deficit and alleviating anxiety- and depression-like behaviors induced by OVX.

Akkouh I, Hughes T, Frei E, A. Andreassen O, Djurovic S. Using iPSC Models to Understand the Role of Estrogen in Neuron-Glia Interactions in Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder

Schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BIP) are severe mental disorders with a considerable disease burden worldwide due to early age of onset, chronicity, and lack of efficient treatments or prevention strategies. Whilst our current knowledge is that SCZ and BIP are highly heritable and share common pathophysiological mechanisms associated with cellular signaling, neurotransmission, energy metabolism, and neuroinflammation, the development of novel therapies has been hampered by the unavailability of appropriate models to identify novel targetable pathomechanisms. Recent data suggest that neuron-glia interactions are disturbed in SCZ and BIP, and are modulated by estrogen (E2). However, most of the knowledge we have so far on the neuromodulatory effects of E2 came from studies on animal models and human cell lines, and may not accurately reflect many processes occurring exclusively in the human brain. Thus, here we highlight the advantages of using induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models to revisit studies of mechanisms underlying beneficial effects of E2 in human brain cells. A better understanding of these mechanisms opens the opportunity to identify putative targets of novel therapeutic agents for SCZ and BIP. In this review, we first summarize the literature on the molecular mechanisms involved in SCZ and BIP pathology and the beneficial effects of E2 on neuron-glia interactions. Then, we briefly present the most recent developments in the iPSC field, emphasizing the potential of using patient-derived iPSCs as more relevant models to study the effects of E2 on neuron-glia interactions.

Adolescent Neurodevelopment and Vulnerability to Psychosis

Adolescence is characterized by significant changes in several domains, including brain structure and function, puberty, and social and environmental factors. Some of these changes serve to increase the likelihood of psychosis onset during this period, while others may buffer this risk. This review characterizes our current knowledge regarding the unique aspects of adolescence that may serve as risk factors for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. In addition, we provide potential future directions for research into adolescent-specific developmental mechanisms that impart vulnerability to psychosis and the possibility of interventions that capitalize on adolescents' unique characteristics. Specifically, we explore the ways in which gray and white matter develop throughout adolescence in typically developing youth as well as in those with psychosis spectrum disorders. We also discuss current views on the function that social support and demands, as well as role expectations, play in risk for psychosis. We further highlight the importance of considering biological factors such as puberty and hormonal changes as areas of unique vulnerability for adolescents. Finally, we discuss cannabis use as a factor that may have a unique impact during adolescent neurodevelopment, and subsequently potentially impact psychosis onset. Throughout, we include discussion of resilience factors that may provide unique opportunities for intervention during this dynamic life stage.

Signaling Pathways and Sex Differential Processes in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders associated with deficits in social communication and restrictive, repetitive patterns of behavior, that affect up to 1 in 54 children. ASDs clearly demonstrate a male bias, occurring ~4 times more frequently in males than females, though the basis for this male predominance is not well-understood. In recent years, ASD risk gene discovery has accelerated, with many whole-exome sequencing studies identifying genes that converge on common pathways, such as neuronal communication and regulation of gene expression. ASD genetics studies have suggested that there may be a "female protective effect," such that females may have a higher threshold for ASD risk, yet its etiology is not well-understood. Here, we review common biological pathways implicated by ASD genetics studies as well as recent analyses of sex differential processes in ASD using imaging genomics, transcriptomics, and animal models. Additionally, we discuss recent investigations of ASD risk genes that have suggested a potential role for estrogens as modulators of biological pathways in ASD, and highlight relevant molecular and cellular pathways downstream of estrogen signaling as potential avenues for further investigation.