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Zong Y, Yang Y, Zhao J, Li L, Luo D, Hu J, Gao Y, Xie X, Shen L, Chen S, Ning L, Jiang L. Identification of key mitochondria-related genes and their relevance to the immune system linking Parkinson's disease and primary Sjögren's syndrome through integrated bioinformatics analyses. Comput Biol Med 2024; 175:108511. [PMID: 38677173 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mitochondria are the metabolic hubs of cells, regulating energy production and antigen presentation, which are essential for activation, proliferation, and function of immune cells. Recent evidence indicates that mitochondrial antigen presentation may have an impact on diseases such as Parkinson's disease (PD) and autoimmune diseases. However, there is limited knowledge about the mechanisms that regulate the presentation of mitochondrial antigens in these diseases. METHODS In the current study, RNA sequencing was performed on labial minor salivary gland (LSG) from 25 patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) and 14 non-pSS aged controls. Additionally, we obtained gene expression omnibus datasets associated with PD patients from NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases. Single-sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA), ESTIMATE and Spearman correlations were conducted to explore the association between mitochondrial related genes and the immune system. Furthermore, we applied weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) to identify hub mitochondria-related genes and investigate the correlated networks in both diseases. Single cell transcriptome analysis, immunohistochemical (IHC) staining and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) were used to verify the activation of the hub mitochondria-related pathway. Pearson correlations and the CIBERSORT algorithms were employed to further reveal the correlation between hub mitochondria-related pathways and immune infiltration. RESULTS The transcriptome analysis revealed the presence of overlapping mitochondria-related genes and mitochondrial DNA damage in patients with pSS and PD. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), the senescence marker p53, and the inflammatory markers CD45 and Bcl-2 were found to be regionally distributed in LSGs of pSS patients. WGCNA analysis identified the STING pathway as the central mitochondria-related pathway closely associated with the immune system. Single cell analysis, IHC staining, and qRT-PCR confirmed the activation of the STING pathway. Subsequent, bioinformatic analysis revealed the proportion of infiltrating immune cells in the STING-high and STING-low groups of pSS and PD. Furthermore, the study demonstrated the association of the STING pathway with innate and adaptive immune cells, as well as functional cells, in the immune microenvironment of PD and pSS. CONCLUSION Our study uncovered a central pathway that connects mitochondrial dysfunction and the immune microenvironment in PD and pSS, potentially offering valuable insights into therapeutic targets for these conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zong
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Yang
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiawen Zhao
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Pathology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Danyang Luo
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiawei Hu
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiming Gao
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianfei Xie
- Hainan Branch, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Qionghai, China; Department of Orthopaedics, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Linhui Shen
- Department of Geriatrics, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Sheng Chen
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Li Ning
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Liting Jiang
- Department of Stomatology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, College of Stomatology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China.
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Kumar V, Stewart JH. Immunometabolic reprogramming, another cancer hallmark. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1125874. [PMID: 37275901 PMCID: PMC10235624 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1125874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Molecular carcinogenesis is a multistep process that involves acquired abnormalities in key biological processes. The complexity of cancer pathogenesis is best illustrated in the six hallmarks of the cancer: (1) the development of self-sufficient growth signals, (2) the emergence of clones that are resistant to apoptosis, (3) resistance to the antigrowth signals, (4) neo-angiogenesis, (5) the invasion of normal tissue or spread to the distant organs, and (6) limitless replicative potential. It also appears that non-resolving inflammation leads to the dysregulation of immune cell metabolism and subsequent cancer progression. The present article delineates immunometabolic reprogramming as a critical hallmark of cancer by linking chronic inflammation and immunosuppression to cancer growth and metastasis. We propose that targeting tumor immunometabolic reprogramming will lead to the design of novel immunotherapeutic approaches to cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Kumar
- Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center (LSUHSC), New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - John H. Stewart
- Department of Interdisciplinary Oncology, Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center (LSUHSC), New Orleans, LA, United States
- Louisiana State University- Louisiana Children’s Medical Center, Stanley S. Scott, School of Medicine, Louisiana State University Health Science Center (LSUHSC), New Orleans, LA, United States
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Du L, Xu C, Tang K, Shi J, Tang L, Lisha X, Lei C, Liu H, Liang Y, Guo Y. Epithelial CST1 Promotes Airway Eosinophilic Inflammation in Asthma via the AKT Signaling Pathway. ALLERGY, ASTHMA & IMMUNOLOGY RESEARCH 2023; 15:374-394. [PMID: 37075800 DOI: 10.4168/aair.2023.15.3.374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Epithelial cystatin SN (CST1), a type 2 cysteine protease inhibitor, was significantly upregulated in asthma. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential role and mechanism of CST1 in eosinophilic inflammation in asthma. METHODS Bioinformatics analysis on Gene Expression Omnibus datasets were used to explore the expression of CST1 in asthma. Sputum samples were collected from 76 asthmatics and 22 control subjects. CST1 mRNA and protein expression in the induced sputum were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and western blotting. The possible function of CST1 was explored in ovalbumin (OVA)-induced eosinophilic asthma. Transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) was used to predict the possible regulated mechanism of CST1 in bronchial epithelial cells. Overexpression or knockdown of CST1 was further used to verify potential mechanisms in bronchial epithelial cells. RESULTS CST1 expression was significantly increased in the epithelial cells and induced sputum of asthma. Increased CST1 was significantly associated with eosinophilic indicators and T helper cytokines. CST1 aggravated airway eosinophilic inflammation in the OVA-induced asthma model. In addition, overexpression of CST1 significantly enhanced the phosphorylation of AKT and the expression of serpin peptidase inhibitor, clade B, member 2 (SERPINB2), while knockdown using anti-CST1 siRNA reversed the trend. Furthermore, AKT had a positive effect on SERPINB2 expression. CONCLUSIONS Increased sputum CST1 may play a key role in the pathogenesis of asthma through involvement in eosinophilic and type 2 inflammation through activation of the AKT signaling pathway, further promoting SERPINB2 expression. Therefore, targeting CST1 might be of therapeutic value in treating asthma with severe and eosinophilic phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijuan Du
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
| | - Changyi Xu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kun Tang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia Shi
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lu Tang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiao Lisha
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chengcheng Lei
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huicong Liu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuxia Liang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Yubiao Guo
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.
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Lin J, Liu J, Ma R, Hao J, Liang Y, Zhao J, Zhang A, Meng H, Lu J. Interleukin-33: Metabolic checkpoints, metabolic processes, and epigenetic regulation in immune cells. Front Immunol 2022; 13:900826. [PMID: 35979357 PMCID: PMC9376228 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.900826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is a pleiotropic cytokine linked to various immune cells in the innate and adaptive immune systems. Recent studies of the effects of IL-33 on immune cells are beginning to reveal its regulatory mechanisms at the levels of cellular metabolism and epigenetic modifications. In response to IL-33 stimulation, these programs are intertwined with transcriptional programs, ultimately determining the fate of immune cells. Understanding these specific molecular events will help to explain the complex role of IL-33 in immune cells, thereby guiding the development of new strategies for immune intervention. Here, we highlight recent findings that reveal how IL-33, acting as an intracellular nuclear factor or an extracellular cytokine, alters metabolic checkpoints and cellular metabolism, which coordinately contribute to cell growth and function. We also discuss recent studies supporting the role of IL-33 in epigenetic alterations and speculate about the mechanisms underlying this relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jiyun Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Rui Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jie Hao
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Junjie Zhao
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Ailing Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Haiyang Meng
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jingli Lu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Henan Engineering Research Center of Clinical Mass Spectrometry for Precision Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jingli Lu,
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Nagashima R, Ishikawa H, Kuno Y, Kohda C, Iyoda M. IL-33 attenuates renal fibrosis via group2 innate lymphoid cells. Cytokine 2022; 157:155963. [PMID: 35868116 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2022.155963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Renal fibrosis is a common pathway in the progression of various kidney diseases and injuries. Unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) induces renal fibrosis, and immune responses profoundly affect its pathogenesis. Group2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are strongly activated by interleukin (IL) -33, which is a member of IL-1 family and recognize as alarmin. ILC2s quickly produce large amounts of type 2 cytokines including IL-5 and IL-13, which are involved in inflammation, tissue homeostasis, and wound healing. However, the relationship between renal fibrosis and ILC2s has been unclear. In the present study, we investigated the roles of the ILC2/L-33 axis in renal fibrosis using a UUO model. We found that kidney ILC2s decreased in UUO-affected kidneys compared with their counterpart kidneys despite IL-33 upregulation. There was no effect of reactive oxygen species or TGF-β from reduced ILC2 caused by UUO. Pretreatment with IL-33 before UUO induced ILC2s and Tregs in kidneys and alleviated renal fibrosis. Furthermore, this protective effect was maintained even when CD4+T cells was depleted. These findings demonstrated that ILC2s play a predominant role in the suppressive function of renal fibrosis mediated by pretreatment with IL-33. In contrast, post-treatment with IL-33 after UUO increased ILC2s in kidneys but had no therapeutic effect on renal fibrosis. Our findings suggest that ILC2s have potential roles in the prevention of renal fibrosis and can serve as a therapeutic and diagnostic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Nagashima
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Showa University School of Medicine, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan.
| | - Hiroki Ishikawa
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Showa University School of Medicine, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Kuno
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Showa University School of Medicine, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Chikara Kohda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Showa University School of Medicine, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan
| | - Masayuki Iyoda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Showa University School of Medicine, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8555, Japan; Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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Pascal M, Kazakov A, Chevalier G, Dubrule L, Deyrat J, Dupin A, Saha S, Jagot F, Sailor K, Dulauroy S, Moigneu C, Belkaid Y, Lepousez G, Lledo PM, Wilhelm C, Eberl G. The neuropeptide VIP potentiates intestinal innate type 2 and type 3 immunity in response to feeding. Mucosal Immunol 2022; 15:629-641. [PMID: 35501356 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-022-00516-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The nervous system and the immune system both rely on an extensive set of modalities to perceive and act on perturbations in the internal and external environments. During feeding, the intestine is exposed to nutrients that may contain noxious substances and pathogens. Here we show that Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP), produced by the nervous system in response to feeding, potentiates the production of effector cytokines by intestinal type 2 and type 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s and ILC3s). Exposure to VIP alone leads to modest activation of ILCs, but strongly potentiates ILCs to concomitant or subsequent activation by the inducer cytokines IL-33 or IL-23, via mobilization of cAMP and energy by glycolysis. Consequently, VIP increases resistance to intestinal infection by the helminth Trichuris muris and the enterobacteria Citrobacter rodentium. These findings uncover a functional neuro-immune crosstalk unfolding during feeding that increases the reactivity of innate immunity necessary to face potential threats associated with food intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Pascal
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France. .,Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, INSERM U1224, Microenvironment and Immunity Unit, F-75015, Paris, France. .,PhD program 'Cerveau, Cognition, Comportement' (ED3C), Université Paris Sciences & Lettres, Paris, France.
| | - Alexander Kazakov
- Immunopathology Unit, Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Grégoire Chevalier
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, INSERM U1224, Microenvironment and Immunity Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Lola Dubrule
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Julie Deyrat
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Alice Dupin
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Soham Saha
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Ferdinand Jagot
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, INSERM U1224, Microenvironment and Immunity Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Kurt Sailor
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Sophie Dulauroy
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, INSERM U1224, Microenvironment and Immunity Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Carine Moigneu
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Yasmine Belkaid
- Metaorganism Immunity Section, Laboratory of Immune System Biology, and NIAID Microbiome Program, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Gabriel Lepousez
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France
| | - Pierre-Marie Lledo
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR 3571, Perception and Memory Unit, F-75015, Paris, France.
| | - Christoph Wilhelm
- Immunopathology Unit, Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, 53127, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gérard Eberl
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, INSERM U1224, Microenvironment and Immunity Unit, F-75015, Paris, France.
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