Common and distinct transcriptional signatures of mammalian embryonic lethality

Cell Fate Programming by Transcription Factors and Epigenetic Machinery in Stomatal Development

The development of multi-cellular organisms requires coordinated changes in gene expression that are often mediated by the interaction between transcription factors (TFs) and their corresponding cis-regulatory elements (CREs). During development and differentiation, the accessibility of CREs is dynamically modulated by the epigenome. How the epigenome, CREs and TFs together exert control over cell fate commitment remains to be fully understood. In the Arabidopsis leaf epidermis, meristemoids undergo a series of stereotyped cell divisions, then switch fate to commit to stomatal differentiation. Newly created or reanalyzed scRNA-seq and ChIP-seq data confirm that stomatal development involves distinctive phases of transcriptional regulation and that differentially regulated genes are bound by the stomatal basic-helix-loop-helix (bHLH) TFs. Targets of the bHLHs often reside in repressive chromatin before activation. MNase-seq evidence further suggests that the repressive state can be overcome and remodeled upon activation by specific stomatal bHLHs. We propose that chromatin remodeling is mediated through the recruitment of a set of physical interactors that we identified through proximity labeling - the ATPase-dependent chromatin remodeling SWI/SNF complex and the histone acetyltransferase HAC1. The bHLHs and chromatin remodelers localize to overlapping genomic regions in a hierarchical order. Furthermore, plants with stage-specific knock-down of the SWI/SNF components or HAC1 fail to activate specific bHLH targets and display stomatal development defects. Together these data converge on a model for how stomatal TFs and epigenetic machinery cooperatively regulate transcription and chromatin remodeling during progressive fate specification.

Keeping development on time: Insights into post-transcriptional mechanisms driving oscillatory gene expression during vertebrate segmentation

Biological time keeping, or the duration and tempo at which biological processes occur, is a phenomenon that drives dynamic molecular and morphological changes that manifest throughout many facets of life. In some cases, the molecular mechanisms regulating the timing of biological transitions are driven by genetic oscillations, or periodic increases and decreases in expression of genes described collectively as a "molecular clock." In vertebrate animals, molecular clocks play a crucial role in fundamental patterning and cell differentiation processes throughout development. For example, during early vertebrate embryogenesis, the segmentation clock regulates the patterning of the embryonic mesoderm into segmented blocks of tissue called somites, which later give rise to axial skeletal muscle and vertebrae. Segmentation clock oscillations are characterized by rapid cycles of mRNA and protein expression. For segmentation clock oscillations to persist, the transcript and protein molecules of clock genes must be short-lived. Faithful, rhythmic, genetic oscillations are sustained by precise regulation at many levels, including post-transcriptional regulation, and such mechanisms are essential for proper vertebrate development. This article is categorized under: RNA Export and Localization > RNA Localization RNA Turnover and Surveillance > Regulation of RNA Stability Translation > Regulation.

eEF2 in the prefrontal cortex promotes excitatory synaptic transmission and social novelty behavior

Regulation of mRNA translation is essential for brain development and function. Translation elongation factor eEF2 acts as a molecular hub orchestrating various synaptic signals to protein synthesis control and participates in hippocampus-dependent cognitive functions. However, whether eEF2 regulates other behaviors in different brain regions has been unknown. Here, we construct a line of Eef2 heterozygous (HET) mice, which show a reduction in eEF2 and protein synthesis mainly in excitatory neurons of the prefrontal cortex. The mice also show lower spine density, reduced excitability, and AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission in pyramidal neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). While HET mice exhibit normal learning and memory, they show defective social behavior and elevated anxiety. Knockdown of Eef2 in excitatory neurons of the mPFC specifically is sufficient to impair social novelty preference. Either chemogenetic activation of excitatory neurons in the mPFC or mPFC local infusion of the AMPAR potentiator PF-4778574 corrects the social novelty deficit of HET mice. Collectively, we identify a novel role for eEF2 in promoting prefrontal AMPAR-mediated synaptic transmission underlying social novelty behavior.

Real age prediction from the transcriptome with RAPToR

Transcriptomic data is often affected by uncontrolled variation among samples that can obscure and confound the effects of interest. This variation is frequently due to unintended differences in developmental stages between samples. The transcriptome itself can be used to estimate developmental progression, but existing methods require many samples and do not estimate a specimen's real age. Here we present real-age prediction from transcriptome staging on reference (RAPToR), a computational method that precisely estimates the real age of a sample from its transcriptome, exploiting existing time-series data as reference. RAPToR works with whole animal, dissected tissue and single-cell data for the most common animal models, humans and even for non-model organisms lacking reference data. We show that RAPToR can be used to remove age as a confounding factor and allow recovery of a signal of interest in differential expression analysis. RAPToR will be especially useful in large-scale single-organism profiling because it eliminates the need for accurate staging or synchronisation before profiling.

Allele-specific gene expression can underlie altered transcript abundance in zebrafish mutants

In model organisms, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) is frequently used to assess the effect of genetic mutations on cellular and developmental processes. Typically, animals heterozygous for a mutation are crossed to produce offspring with different genotypes. Resultant embryos are grouped by genotype to compare homozygous mutant embryos to heterozygous and wild-type siblings. Genes that are differentially expressed between the groups are assumed to reveal insights into the pathways affected by the mutation. Here we show that in zebrafish, differentially expressed genes are often over-represented on the same chromosome as the mutation due to different levels of expression of alleles from different genetic backgrounds. Using an incross of haplotype-resolved wild-type fish, we found evidence of widespread allele-specific expression, which appears as differential expression when comparing embryos homozygous for a region of the genome to their siblings. When analysing mutant transcriptomes, this means that the differential expression of genes on the same chromosome as a mutation of interest may not be caused by that mutation. Typically, the genomic location of a differentially expressed gene is not considered when interpreting its importance with respect to the phenotype. This could lead to pathways being erroneously implicated or overlooked due to the noise of spurious differentially expressed genes on the same chromosome as the mutation. These observations have implications for the interpretation of RNA-seq experiments involving outbred animals and non-inbred model organisms.

EHMT2 suppresses the variation of transcriptional switches in the mouse embryo

EHMT2 is the main euchromatic H3K9 methyltransferase. Embryos with zygotic, or maternal mutation in the Ehmt2 gene exhibit variable developmental delay. To understand how EHMT2 prevents variable developmental delay we performed RNA sequencing of mutant and somite stage-matched normal embryos at 8.5–9.5 days of gestation. Using four-way comparisons between delayed and normal embryos we clarified what it takes to be normal and what it takes to develop. We identified differentially expressed genes, for example Hox genes that simply reflected the difference in developmental progression of wild type and the delayed mutant uterus-mate embryos. By comparing wild type and zygotic mutant embryos along the same developmental window we detected a role of EHMT2 in suppressing variation in the transcriptional switches. We identified transcription changes where precise switching during development occurred only in the normal but not in the mutant embryo. At the 6-somite stage, gastrulation-specific genes were not precisely switched off in the Ehmt2^−/− zygotic mutant embryos, while genes involved in organ growth, connective tissue development, striated muscle development, muscle differentiation, and cartilage development were not precisely switched on. The Ehmt2^mat−/+ maternal mutant embryos displayed high transcriptional variation consistent with their variable survival. Variable derepression of transcripts occurred dominantly in the maternally inherited allele. Transcription was normal in the parental haploinsufficient wild type embryos despite their delay, consistent with their good prospects. Global profiling of transposable elements revealed EHMT2 targeted DNA methylation and suppression at LTR repeats, mostly ERVKs. In Ehmt2^−/− embryos, transcription over very long distances initiated from such misregulated ‘driver’ ERVK repeats, encompassing a multitude of misexpressed ‘passenger’ repeats. In summary, EHMT2 reduced transcriptional variation of developmental switch genes and developmentally switching repeat elements at the six-somite stage embryos. These findings establish EHMT2 as a suppressor of transcriptional and developmental variation at the transition between gastrulation and organ specification.

Developmental variation is the property of normal development, and its regulation is poorly understood. Variable developmental delay is found in embryos that carry mutations of epigenetic modifiers, suggesting a role of chromatin in controlling developmental delay and its variable nature. We analyzed a genetic series of mutations and found that EHMT2 suppresses variation of developmental delay and also suppresses the variation of transcriptional switches at the transition between gastrulation and organ specification.

A call to eradicate non-inclusive terms from the life sciences

Since the Black Lives Matter movement rose to mainstream prominence, the academic enterprise has started recognizing the systematic racism present in science. However, there have been relatively few efforts to make sure that the language used to communicate science is inclusive. Here, I quantify the number of research articles published between 2000 and 2020 that contained non-inclusive terms with racial connotations, such as "blacklist" and "whitelist", or "master" and "slave". This reveals that non-inclusive language is being increasingly used in the life sciences literature, and I urge the global academic community to expunge these archaic terms to make science inclusive for everyone.

Dedicated transcriptomics combined with power analysis lead to functional understanding of genes with weak phenotypic changes in knockout lines

Systematic knockout studies in mice have shown that a large fraction of the gene replacements show no lethal or other overt phenotypes. This has led to the development of more refined analysis schemes, including physiological, behavioral, developmental and cytological tests. However, transcriptomic analyses have not yet been systematically evaluated for non-lethal knockouts. We conducted a power analysis to determine the experimental conditions under which even small changes in transcript levels can be reliably traced. We have applied this to two gene disruption lines of genes for which no function was known so far. Dedicated phenotyping tests informed by the tissues and stages of highest expression of the two genes show small effects on the tested phenotypes. For the transcriptome analysis of these stages and tissues, we used a prior power analysis to determine the number of biological replicates and the sequencing depth. We find that under these conditions, the knockouts have a significant impact on the transcriptional networks, with thousands of genes showing small transcriptional changes. GO analysis suggests that A930004D18Rik is involved in developmental processes through contributing to protein complexes, and A830005F24Rik in extracellular matrix functions. Subsampling analysis of the data reveals that the increase in the number of biological replicates was more important that increasing the sequencing depth to arrive at these results. Hence, our proof-of-principle experiment suggests that transcriptomic analysis is indeed an option to study gene functions of genes with weak or no traceable phenotypic effects and it provides the boundary conditions under which this is possible.

Knockout mice benefit the understanding of gene functions in mammals. However, it has proven difficult for many genes to identify clear phenotypes, related due to lack of sufficient assays. As Lewis Wolpert put it in a famous quote “But did you take them to the opera?”, thus metaphorically alluding to the need to extend phenotyping efforts. This insight led to the establishment of phenotyping pipelines that are nowadays routinely used to characterize knock-out lines. However, transcriptomic approaches based on RNA-Seq have been much less explored for such deep-level studies. We conducted here both, a theoretical power analysis and practical RNA-Seq experiments on two knockout lines with small phenotypic effects to investigate the parameters including sample size, sequencing depth, fold change, and dispersion. Our dedicated RNA-Seq studies discovered thousands of genes with small transcriptional changes and enriched in specific functions in both knockout lines. We find that it is more important to increase the number of samples than to increase the sequencing depth. Our work shows that a deep RNA-Seq study on knockouts is powerful for understanding gene functions in cases of weak phenotypic effects, and provides a guideline for the experimental design of such studies.

High-throughput genotyping of high-homology mutant mouse strains by next-generation sequencing

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Next generation sequencing is a scalable solution to genotyping mutant mice.

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Ratios of wild type and mutant sequence counts are used to call the genotype.

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Hundreds of samples can be multiplexed into one sequencing experiment.

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Amplification of high-homology genes can be easily filtered out during analysis.

Genotyping of knockout alleles in mice is commonly performed by end-point PCR or gene-specific/universal cassette qPCR. Both have advantages and limitations in terms of assay design and interpretation of results. As an alternative method for high-throughput genotyping, we investigated next generation sequencing (NGS) of PCR amplicons, with a focus on CRISPR-mediated exon deletions where antibiotic selection markers are not present. By multiplexing the wild type and mutant-specific PCR reactions, the genotype can be called by the relative sequence counts of each product. The system is highly scalable and can be applied to a variety of different allele types, including those produced by the International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium and associated projects.

One potential challenge with any assay design is locating unique areas of the genome, especially when working with gene families or regions of high homology. These can result in misleading or ambiguous genotypes for either qPCR or end-point assays. Here, we show that genotyping by NGS can negate these issues by simple, automated filtering of undesired sequences. Analysis and genotype calls can also be fully automated, using FASTQ or FASTA input files and an in-house Perl script and SQL database.

Challenges in detecting and quantifying intron retention from next generation sequencing data

Intron retention (IR) occurs when an intron is transcribed into pre-mRNA and remains in the final mRNA. An increasing body of literature has demonstrated a major role for IR in numerous biological functions and in disease. Here we give an overview of the different computational approaches for detecting IR events from sequencing data. We show that these are based on different biological and computational assumptions that may lead to dramatically different results. We describe the various approaches for mitigating errors in detecting intron retention and for discovering IR signatures between different conditions.

High-Resolution Episcopic Microscopy (HREM): Looking Back on 13 Years of Successful Generation of Digital Volume Data of Organic Material for 3D Visualisation and 3D Display

High-resolution episcopic microscopy (HREM) is an imaging technique that permits the simple and rapid generation of three-dimensional (3D) digital volume data of histologically embedded and physically sectioned specimens. The data can be immediately used for high-detail 3D analysis of a broad variety of organic materials with all modern methods of 3D visualisation and display. Since its first description in 2006, HREM has been adopted as a method for exploring organic specimens in many fields of science, and it has recruited a slowly but steadily growing user community. This review aims to briefly introduce the basic principles of HREM data generation and to provide an overview of scientific publications that have been published in the last 13 years involving HREM imaging. The studies to which we refer describe technical details and specimen-specific protocols, and provide examples of the successful use of HREM in biological, biomedical and medical research. Finally, the limitations, potentials and anticipated further improvements are briefly outlined.