Emr1 regulates the number of foci of the endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria encounter structure complex

ER-mitochondria encounter structure connections determine drug sensitivity and virulence of Cryptococcus neoformans

Cryptococcus neoformans is a common fungal pathogen, causing fatal meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised individuals. The limited availability of antifungals and increasing resistance in pathogens including C. neoformans emphasize the need to find new drugs. Mitochondria have long been associated with drug resistance in fungi. They are connected to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) via a multiprotein complex, the ER-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES), which is unique in the fungal kingdom. In this study on C. neoformans, the four subunits of the ERMES complex, namely, Mmm1, Mdm12, Mdm10 and Mdm34, were deleted to generate the strains Δmmm1, Δmdm12, Δmdm10 and Δmdm34, respectively. These mutants had impaired mitochondria and were sensitive to antifungals, including echinocandins, due to lower chitin content. Virulence factors, including capsule formation and melanin production, were debilitated in the mutants. The partner organelle ER was also affected by compromised ERMES contact, as the activity of several ER-synthesized enzymes involved in virulence was impacted. The in vivo studies in Caenorhabditis elegans model of cryptococcosis confirmed the reduced virulence of the mutants. These results indicate that the impairment of the ERMES complex is crucial for the virulence and pathogenesis of C. neoformans.

Mitochondria-plasma membrane contact sites regulate the ER-mitochondria encounter structure

Cells form multiple, molecularly distinct membrane contact sites (MCSs) between organelles. Despite knowing the molecular identity of several of these complexes, little is known about how MCSs are coordinately regulated in space and time to promote organelle function. Here, we examined two well-characterized mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum (ER) MCSs - the ER-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES) and the mitochondria-ER-cortex anchor (MECA) in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We report that loss of MECA results in a substantial reduction in the number of ERMES contacts. Rather than reducing ERMES protein levels, loss of MECA results in an increase in the size of ERMES contacts. Using live-cell microscopy, we demonstrate that ERMES contacts display several dynamic behaviors, such as de novo formation, fusion and fission, that are altered in the absence of MECA or by changes in growth conditions. Unexpectedly, we find that the mitochondria-plasma membrane (PM) tethering, and not the mitochondria-ER tethering, function of MECA regulates ERMES contacts. Remarkably, synthetic tethering of mitochondria to the PM in the absence of MECA is sufficient to rescue the distribution of ERMES foci. Overall, our work reveals how one MCS can influence the regulation and function of another.

The 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase Slc1 is required to regulate mitochondria and lipid droplets

Mitochondria are organelles involved in energy metabolism and biosynthesis. As the metabolites released from mitochondria are raw materials used for lipid synthesis, mitochondria also play important roles in lipid metabolism. Here we report that Slc1, a 1-acylglycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferase in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, is required to maintain tubular mitochondrial morphology and normal mitochondrial functions. The absence of Slc1 causes mitochondrial fragmentation, increases mitochondrial fission frequency, reduces mitochondrial respiration, and slows down nitrogen starvation-induced mitophagy. In addition, the absence of Slc1 significantly increases the protein level of Ptl2, which is the triacylglycerol lipase localized on lipid droplets. The phenotypes caused by the absence of Slc1 depend on its acyltransferase enzymatic activity. Therefore, our study uncovers new roles of a lipid synthesis enzyme Slc1 in regulating mitochondria and lipid droplets.

Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenic Fungal Virulence Regulation by Cell Membrane Phospholipids

Pathogenic fungi represent a growing concern for human health, necessitating a deeper understanding of their molecular mechanisms of virulence to formulate effective antifungal strategies. Recent research has increasingly highlighted the role of phospholipid components in fungal cell membranes, which are not only vital for maintaining cellular integrity but also significantly influence fungal pathogenicity. This review focuses on the impact of membrane phospholipid composition on fungal growth, morphogenesis, stress responses, and interactions with host cells. To be specific, membrane phospholipid composition critically influences fungal virulence by modulating growth dynamics and morphogenesis, such as the transition from yeast to hyphal forms, which enhances tissue invasion. Additionally, phospholipids mediate stress adaptation, enabling fungi to withstand host-derived oxidative and osmotic stresses, crucial for survival within hostile host environments. Phospholipid asymmetry also impacts interactions with host cells, including adhesion, phagocytosis evasion, and the secretion of virulence factors like hydrolytic enzymes. These adaptations collectively enhance fungal pathogenicity by promoting colonization, immune evasion, and damage to host tissues, directly linking membrane architecture to infection outcomes. By elucidating the molecular mechanisms involved, we aim to underscore the potential of targeting phospholipid metabolic pathways as a promising avenue for antifungal therapy. A comprehensive understanding of how membrane phospholipid composition regulates the virulence of pathogenic fungi can provide valuable insights for developing novel antifungal strategies.

Ltc1 localization by EMC regulates cell membrane fluidity to facilitate membrane protein biogenesis

The EMC complex, a highly conserved transmembrane chaperone in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), has been associated in humans with sterol homeostasis and a myriad of different cellular activities, rendering the mechanism of EMC functionality enigmatic. Using fission yeast, we demonstrate that the EMC complex facilitates the biogenesis of the sterol transfer protein Lam6/Ltc1 at ER-plasma membrane and ER-mitochondria contact sites. Cells that lose EMC function sequester unfolded Lam6/Ltc1 and other proteins at the mitochondrial matrix, leading to surplus ergosterol, cold-sensitive growth, and mitochondrial dysfunctions. Remarkably, inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis, but also fluidization of cell membranes to counteract their rigidizing effects, reduce the ER-unfolded protein response and rescue growth and mitochondrial defects in EMC-deficient cells. These results suggest that EMC-assisted biogenesis of Lam6/Ltc1 may provide, through ergosterol homeostasis, optimal membrane fluidity to facilitate biogenesis of other ER-membrane proteins.

Biogenesis of mitochondrial β-barrel membrane proteins

β-barrel membrane proteins in the mitochondrial outer membrane are crucial for mediating the metabolite exchange between the cytosol and the mitochondrial intermembrane space. In addition, the β-barrel membrane protein subunit Tom40 of the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM) is essential for the import of the vast majority of mitochondrial proteins encoded in the nucleus. The sorting and assembly machinery (SAM) in the outer membrane is required for the membrane insertion of mitochondrial β-barrel proteins. The core subunit Sam50, which has been conserved from bacteria to humans, is itself a β-barrel protein. The β-strands of β-barrel precursor proteins are assembled at the Sam50 lateral gate forming a Sam50-preprotein hybrid barrel. The assembled precursor β-barrel is finally released into the outer mitochondrial membrane by displacement of the nascent β-barrel, termed the β-barrel switching mechanism. SAM forms supercomplexes with TOM and forms a mitochondrial outer-to-inner membrane contact site with the mitochondrial contact site and cristae organizing system (MICOS) of the inner membrane. SAM shares subunits with the ER-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES), which forms a membrane contact site between the mitochondrial outer membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum. Therefore, β-barrel membrane protein biogenesis is closely connected to general mitochondrial protein and lipid biogenesis and plays a central role in mitochondrial maintenance.

The Mitochondrial Distribution and Morphology Family 33 Gene FgMDM33 Is Involved in Autophagy and Pathogenesis in Fusarium graminearum

The mitochondrial distribution and morphology family 33 gene (MDM33) regulates mitochondrial homeostasis by mediating the mitochondrial fission process in yeast. The wheat head blight Fusarium graminearum contains an FgMdm33 protein that is orthologous to Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mdm33, albeit its function remains unknown. We have reported here the roles of FgMdm33 in regulating fungal morphogenesis, mitochondrial morphology, autophagy, apoptosis, and fungal pathogenicity. The ΔFgmdm33 mutants generated through a homologous recombination strategy in this study exhibited defects in terms of mycelial growth, conidia production, and virulence. Hyphal cells lacking FgMDM33 displayed elongated mitochondria and a dispensable respiratory-deficient growth phenotype, indicating the possible involvement of FgMDM33 in mitochondrial fission. The ΔFgmdm33 mutants displayed a remarkable reduction in the proteolysis of GFP-FgAtg8, whereas the formation of autophagic bodies in the hyphal cells of mutants was recorded under the induction of mitophagy. In addition, the transcriptional expression of the apoptosis-inducing factor 1 gene (FgAIF1) was significantly upregulated in the ΔFgmdm33 mutants. Cumulatively, these results indicate that FgMDM33 is involved in mitochondrial fission, non-selective macroautophagy, and apoptosis and that it regulates fungal growth, conidiation, and pathogenicity of the head blight pathogen.

Role of the small protein Mco6 in the mitochondrial sorting and assembly machinery

The majority of mitochondrial precursor proteins are imported through the Tom40 β-barrel channel of the translocase of the outer membrane (TOM). The sorting and assembly machinery (SAM) is essential for β-barrel membrane protein insertion into the outer membrane and thus required for the assembly of the TOM complex. Here, we demonstrate that the α-helical outer membrane protein Mco6 co-assembles with the mitochondrial distribution and morphology protein Mdm10 as part of the SAM machinery. MCO6 and MDM10 display a negative genetic interaction, and a mco6-mdm10 yeast double mutant displays reduced levels of the TOM complex. Cells lacking Mco6 affect the levels of Mdm10 and show assembly defects of the TOM complex. Thus, this work uncovers a role of the SAMMco6 complex for the biogenesis of the mitochondrial outer membrane.

A KDELR-mediated ER-retrieval system modulates mitochondrial functions via the unfolded protein response in fission yeast

KDELR (Erd2 [ER retention defective 2] in yeasts) is a receptor protein that retrieves endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident proteins from the Golgi apparatus. However, the role of the KDELR-mediated ER-retrieval system in regulating cellular homeostasis remains elusive. Here, we show that the absence of Erd2 triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR) and enhances mitochondrial respiration and reactive oxygen species in an UPR-dependent manner in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Moreover, we perform transcriptomic analysis and find that the expression of genes related to mitochondrial respiration and the tricarboxylic acid cycle is upregulated in a UPR-dependent manner in cells lacking Erd2. The increased mitochondrial respiration and reactive oxygen species production is required for cell survival in the absence of Erd2. Therefore, our findings reveal a novel role of the KDELR-Erd2-mediated ER-retrieval system in modulating mitochondrial functions and highlight its importance for cellular homeostasis in the fission yeast.

Recent insights into the control of mitochondrial fission

Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell. They undergo fission and fusion to maintain cellular homeostasis. In this review, we explore the intricate regulation of mitochondrial fission at various levels, including the protein level, the post-translational modification level, and the organelle level. Malfunctions in mitochondrial fission can have detrimental effects on cells. Therefore, we also examine the association between mitochondrial fission with diseases such as breast cancer and cardiovascular disorders. We anticipate that a comprehensive investigation into the control of mitochondrial fission will pave the way for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.

The divergent ER-mitochondria encounter structures (ERMES) are conserved in parabasalids but lost in several anaerobic lineages with hydrogenosomes

BACKGROUND

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mitochondria membrane contact sites (MCS) are extensively studied in aerobic eukaryotes; however, little is known about MCS in anaerobes with reduced forms of mitochondria named hydrogenosomes. In several eukaryotic lineages, the direct physical tether between ER and the outer mitochondrial membrane is formed by ER-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES). The complex consists of four core proteins (Mmm1, Mmm2, Mdm12, and Mdm10) which are involved in phospholipid trafficking. Here we investigated ERMES distribution in organisms bearing hydrogenosomes and employed Trichomonas vaginalis as a model to estimate ERMES cellular localization, structure, and function.

RESULTS

Homology searches revealed that Parabasalia-Anaeramoebae, anaerobic jakobids, and anaerobic fungi are lineages with hydrogenosomes that retain ERMES, while ERMES components were gradually lost in Fornicata, and are absent in Preaxostyla and Archamoebae. In T. vaginalis and other parabasalids, three ERMES components were found with the expansion of Mmm1. Immunofluorescence microscopy confirmed that Mmm1 localized in ER, while Mdm12 and Mmm2 were partially localized in hydrogenosomes. Pull-down assays and mass spectrometry of the ERMES components identified a parabasalid-specific Porin2 as a substitute for the Mdm10. ERMES modeling predicted a formation of a continuous hydrophobic tunnel of TvMmm1-TvMdm12-TvMmm2 that is anchored via Porin2 to the hydrogenosomal outer membrane. Phospholipid-ERMES docking and Mdm12-phospholipid dot-blot indicated that ERMES is involved in the transport of phosphatidylinositol phosphates. The absence of enzymes involved in hydrogenosomal phospholipid metabolism implies that ERMES is not involved in the exchange of substrates between ER and hydrogenosomes but in the unidirectional import of phospholipids into hydrogenosomal membranes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our investigation demonstrated that ERMES mediates ER-hydrogenosome interactions in parabasalid T. vaginalis, while the complex was lost in several other lineages with hydrogenosomes.

Piecing together the structural organisation of lipid exchange at membrane contact sites

Membrane contact sites (MCSs) are areas of close proximity between organelles, implicated in transport of small molecules and in organelle biogenesis. Lipid transfer proteins at MCSs facilitate the distribution of lipid species between organelle membranes. Such exchange processes rely on the apposition of two different membranes delimiting distinct compartments and a cytosolic intermembrane space. Maintaining organelle identity while transferring molecules therefore implies control over MCS architecture both on the ultrastructural and molecular levels. Factors including intermembrane distance, density of resident proteins, and contact surface area fine-tune MCS function. Furthermore, the structural arrangement of lipid transfer proteins and associated proteins underpins the molecular mechanisms of lipid fluxes at MCSs. Thus, the architecture of MCSs emerges as an essential aspect of their function.

In situ architecture of the ER-mitochondria encounter structure

The endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria are main hubs of eukaryotic membrane biogenesis that rely on lipid exchange via membrane contact sites^1-3, but the underpinning mechanisms remain poorly understood. In yeast, tethering and lipid transfer between the two organelles is mediated by the endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES), a four-subunit complex of unresolved stoichiometry and architecture^4-6. Here we determined the molecular organization of ERMES within Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells using integrative structural biology by combining quantitative live imaging, cryo-correlative microscopy, subtomogram averaging and molecular modelling. We found that ERMES assembles into approximately 25 discrete bridge-like complexes distributed irregularly across a contact site. Each bridge consists of three synaptotagmin-like mitochondrial lipid binding protein domains oriented in a zig-zag arrangement. Our molecular model of ERMES reveals a pathway for lipids. These findings resolve the in situ supramolecular architecture of a major inter-organelle lipid transfer machinery and provide a basis for the mechanistic understanding of lipid fluxes in eukaryotic cells.

Shotgun knockdown of RNA by CRISPR-Cas13d in fission yeast

The CRISPR-Cas13d system has a single small effector protein that targets RNA and does not require the presence of a protospacer flanking site in the targeted transcript. These features make CRISPR-Cas13d an attractive system for RNA manipulation. Here, we report the successful implementation of the CRISPR-Cas13d system in fission yeast for RNA knockdown. A high effectiveness of the CRISPR-Cas13d system was ensured by using an array of CRISPR RNAs (crRNAs) that are flanked by two self-cleaving ribozymes and are expressed from an RNA polymerase II promoter. Given the repressible nature of the promoter, RNA knockdown by the CRISPR-Cas13d system is reversible. Moreover, using the CRISPR-Cas13d system, we identified an effective crRNA array targeting the transcript of gfp and the effectiveness was demonstrated by successful knockdown of the transcripts of noc4-gfp, bub1-gfp and ade6-gfp. In principle, the effective GFP crRNA array allows knockdown of any transcript carrying the GFP sequences. This new CRISPR-Cas13d-based toolkit is expected to have a wide range of applications in many aspects of biology, including dissection of gene function and visualization of RNA.

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex: Life's essential, vulnerable and druggable energy homeostat

Found in all organisms, pyruvate dehydrogenase complexes (PDC) are the keystones of prokaryotic and eukaryotic energy metabolism. In eukaryotic organisms these multi-component megacomplexes provide a crucial mechanistic link between cytoplasmic glycolysis and the mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. As a consequence, PDCs also influence the metabolism of branched chain amino acids, lipids and, ultimately, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). PDC activity is an essential determinant of the metabolic and bioenergetic flexibility of metazoan organisms in adapting to changes in development, nutrient availability and various stresses that challenge maintenance of homeostasis. This canonical role of the PDC has been extensively probed over the past decades by multidisciplinary investigations into its causal association with diverse physiological and pathological conditions, the latter making the PDC an increasingly viable therapeutic target. Here we review the biology of the remarkable PDC and its emerging importance in the pathobiology and treatment of diverse congenital and acquired disorders of metabolic integration.

Microtubule-mitochondrial attachment facilitates cell division symmetry and mitochondrial partitioning in fission yeast

Association with microtubules inhibits the fission of mitochondria in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Here, we show that this attachment of mitochondria to microtubules is an important cell-intrinsic factor in determining cell division symmetry. By comparing mutant cells that exhibited enhanced attachment and no attachment of mitochondria to microtubules (Dnm1Δ and Mmb1Δ, respectively), we show that microtubules in these mutants displayed aberrant dynamics compared to wild-type cells, which resulted in errors in nuclear positioning. This translated to cell division asymmetry in a significant proportion of both Dnm1Δ and Mmb1Δ cells. Asymmetric division in Dnm1Δ and Mmb1Δ cells resulted in unequal distribution of mitochondria, with the daughter cell that received more mitochondria growing faster than the other daughter cell. Taken together, we show the existence of homeostatic feedback controls between mitochondria and microtubules in fission yeast, which directly influence mitochondrial partitioning and, thereby, cell growth. This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Dissociation of ERMES clusters plays a key role in attenuating the endoplasmic reticulum stress

In yeast, ERMES, which mediates phospholipid transport between the ER and mitochondria, forms a limited number of oligomeric clusters at ER-mitochondria contact sites in a cell. Although the number of the ERMES clusters appears to be regulated to maintain proper inter-organelle phospholipid trafficking, its underlying mechanism and physiological relevance remain poorly understood. Here, we show that mitochondrial dynamics control the number of ERMES clusters. Moreover, we find that ER stress causes dissociation of the ERMES clusters independently of Ire1 and Hac1, canonical ER-stress response pathway components, leading to a delay in the phospholipid transport from the ER to mitochondria. Our biochemical and genetic analyses strongly suggest that the impaired phospholipid transport contributes to phospholipid accumulation in the ER, expanding the ER for ER stress attenuation. We thus propose that the ERMES dissociation constitutes an overlooked pathway of the ER stress response that operates in addition to the canonical Ire1/Hac1-dependent pathway.

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Mitochondrial fusion and division regulate the clustering of the ERMES complex

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ER stress leads to dissociation of the ERMES clusters independently of Ire1 and Hac1

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The dissociated ERMES complexes have less activity in transporting phospholipids

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The defective phospholipid transport may cause the ER expansion to relieve ER stress

TraB family proteins are components of ER-mitochondrial contact sites and regulate ER-mitochondrial interactions and mitophagy

ER-mitochondrial contact sites (EMCSs) are important for mitochondrial function. Here, we have identified a EMCS complex, comprising a family of uncharacterised mitochondrial outer membrane proteins, TRB1, TRB2, and the ER protein, VAP27-1. In Arabidopsis, there are three TraB family isoforms and the trb1/trb2 double mutant exhibits abnormal mitochondrial morphology, strong starch accumulation, and impaired energy metabolism, indicating that these proteins are essential for normal mitochondrial function. Moreover, TRB1 and TRB2 proteins also interact with ATG8 in order to regulate mitochondrial degradation (mitophagy). The turnover of depolarised mitochondria is significantly reduced in both trb1/trb2 and VAP27 mutants (vap27-1,3,4,6) under mitochondrial stress conditions, with an increased population of dysfunctional mitochondria present in the cytoplasm. Consequently, plant recovery after stress is significantly perturbed, suggesting that TRB1-regulated mitophagy and ER-mitochondrial interaction are two closely related processes. Taken together, we ascribe a dual role to TraB family proteins which are component of the EMCS complex in eukaryotes, regulating both interaction of the mitochondria to the ER and mitophagy.

Excitation-contraction coupling in mammalian skeletal muscle: Blending old and last-decade research

The excitation–contraction coupling (ECC) in skeletal muscle refers to the Ca²⁺-mediated link between the membrane excitation and the mechanical contraction. The initiation and propagation of an action potential through the membranous system of the sarcolemma and the tubular network lead to the activation of the Ca²⁺-release units (CRU): tightly coupled dihydropyridine and ryanodine (RyR) receptors. The RyR gating allows a rapid, massive, and highly regulated release of Ca²⁺ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The release from triadic places generates a sarcomeric gradient of Ca²⁺ concentrations ([Ca²⁺]) depending on the distance of a subcellular region from the CRU. Upon release, the diffusing Ca²⁺ has multiple fates: binds to troponin C thus activating the contractile machinery, binds to classical sarcoplasmic Ca²⁺ buffers such as parvalbumin, adenosine triphosphate and, experimentally, fluorescent dyes, enters the mitochondria and the SR, or is recycled through the Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger and store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE) mechanisms. To commemorate the 7^th decade after being coined, we comprehensively and critically reviewed “old”, historical landmarks and well-established concepts, and blended them with recent advances to have a complete, quantitative-focused landscape of the ECC. We discuss the: 1) elucidation of the CRU structures at near-atomic resolution and its implications for functional coupling; 2) reliable quantification of peak sarcoplasmic [Ca²⁺] using fast, low affinity Ca²⁺ dyes and the relative contributions of the Ca²⁺-binding mechanisms to the whole concert of Ca²⁺ fluxes inside the fibre; 3) articulation of this novel quantitative information with the unveiled structural details of the molecular machinery involved in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ handing to understand how and how much Ca²⁺ enters the mitochondria; 4) presence of the SOCE machinery and its different modes of activation, which awaits understanding of its magnitude and relevance in situ; 5) pharmacology of the ECC, and 6) emerging topics such as the use and potential applications of super-resolution and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) in ECC. Blending the old with the new works better!

Inter-organellar Communication in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's Disease: Looking Beyond Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Contact Sites

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are generally considered proteinopathies but whereas this may initiate disease in familial cases, onset in sporadic diseases may originate from a gradually disrupted organellar homeostasis. Herein, endolysosomal abnormalities, mitochondrial dysfunction, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, and altered lipid metabolism are commonly observed in early preclinical stages of major NDs, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Among the multitude of underlying defective molecular mechanisms that have been suggested in the past decades, dysregulation of inter-organellar communication through the so-called membrane contact sites (MCSs) is becoming increasingly apparent. Although MCSs exist between almost every other type of subcellular organelle, to date, most focus has been put on defective communication between the ER and mitochondria in NDs, given these compartments are critical in neuronal survival. Contributions of other MCSs, notably those with endolysosomes and lipid droplets are emerging, supported as well by genetic studies, identifying genes functionally involved in lysosomal homeostasis. In this review, we summarize the molecular identity of the organelle interactome in yeast and mammalian cells, and critically evaluate the evidence supporting the contribution of disturbed MCSs to the general disrupted inter-organellar homeostasis in NDs, taking PD and AD as major examples.

Identification of key differential genes in intimal hyperplasia induced by left carotid artery ligation

Background

Intimal hyperplasia is a common pathological process of restenosis following angioplasty, atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, vein graft stenosis, and other proliferative diseases. This study aims to screen for potential novel gene targets and mechanisms related to vascular intimal hyperplasia through an integrated microarray analysis of the Gene Expression Omnibus Database (GEO) database.

Material and Methods

The gene expression profile of the GSE56143 dataset was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database. Functional enrichment analysis, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis, and the transcription factor (TF)-target gene regulatory network were used to reveal the biological functions of differential genes (DEGs). Furthermore, the expression levels of the top 10 key DEGs were verified at the mRNA and protein level in the carotid artery 7 days after ligation.

Results

A total of 373 DEGs (199 upregulated DEGs and 174 downregulated DEGs) were screened. These DEGs were significantly enriched in biological processes, including immune system process, cell adhesion, and several pathways, which were mainly associated with cell adhesion molecules and the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. The top 10 key DEGs (Ptprc, Fn1, Tyrobp, Emr1, Itgb2, Itgax, CD44, Ctss, Ly86, and Aif1) acted as key genes in the PPI network. The verification of these key DEGs at the mRNA and protein levels was consistent with the results of the above-mentioned bioinformatics analysis.

Conclusion

The present study identified key genes and pathways involved in intimal hyperplasia induced by carotid artery ligation. These results improved our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the development of intimal hyperplasia and provided candidate targets.

Multilocation proteins in organelle communication: Based on protein-protein interactions

Protein-protein interaction (PPI) plays a crucial role in most biological processes, including signal transduction and cell apoptosis. Importantly, the knowledge of PPIs can be useful for identification of multimeric protein complexes and elucidation of uncharacterized protein functions. Arabidopsis thaliana, the best-characterized dicotyledonous plant, the steadily increasing amount of information on the levels of its proteome and signaling pathways is progressively enabling more researchers to construct models for cellular processes for the plant, which in turn encourages more experimental data to be generated. In this study, we performed an overview analysis of the 10 major organelles and their associated proteins of the dicotyledonous model plant Arabidopsis thaliana via PPI network, and found that PPI may play an important role in organelle communication. Further, multilocation proteins, especially phosphorylation-related multilocation proteins, can function as a "needle and thread" via PPIs and play an important role in organelle communication. Similar results were obtained in a monocotyledonous model crop, rice. Furthermore, we provide a research strategy for multilocation proteins by LOPIT technique, proteomics, and bioinformatics analysis and also describe their potential role in the field of plant science. The results provide a new view that the phosphorylation-related multilocation proteins play an important role in organelle communication and provide new insight into PPIs and novel directions for proteomic research. The research of phosphorylation-related multilocation proteins may promote the development of organelle communication and provide an important theoretical basis for plant responses to external stress.

Mechanisms of Non-Vesicular Exchange of Lipids at Membrane Contact Sites: Of Shuttles, Tunnels and, Funnels

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by their exquisite compartmentalization resulting from a cornucopia of membrane-bound organelles. Each of these compartments hosts a flurry of biochemical reactions and supports biological functions such as genome storage, membrane protein and lipid biosynthesis/degradation and ATP synthesis, all essential to cellular life. Acting as hubs for the transfer of matter and signals between organelles and throughout the cell, membrane contacts sites (MCSs), sites of close apposition between membranes from different organelles, are essential to cellular homeostasis. One of the now well-acknowledged function of MCSs involves the non-vesicular trafficking of lipids; its characterization answered one long-standing question of eukaryotic cell biology revealing how some organelles receive and distribute their membrane lipids in absence of vesicular trafficking. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in synergy with the mitochondria, stands as the nexus for the biosynthesis and distribution of phospholipids (PLs) throughout the cell by contacting nearly all other organelle types. MCSs create and maintain lipid fluxes and gradients essential to the functional asymmetry and polarity of biological membranes throughout the cell. Membrane apposition is mediated by proteinaceous tethers some of which function as lipid transfer proteins (LTPs). We summarize here the current state of mechanistic knowledge of some of the major classes of LTPs and tethers based on the available atomic to near-atomic resolution structures of several "model" MCSs from yeast but also in Metazoans; we describe different models of lipid transfer at MCSs and analyze the determinants of their specificity and directionality. Each of these systems illustrate fundamental principles and mechanisms for the non-vesicular exchange of lipids between eukaryotic membrane-bound organelles essential to a wide range of cellular processes such as at PL biosynthesis and distribution, lipid storage, autophagy and organelle biogenesis.

HIV infection of astrocytes compromises inter-organelle interactions and inositol phosphate metabolism: A potential mechanism of bystander damage and viral reservoir survival

HIV-associated neurological dysfunction is observed in more than half of the HIV-infected population, even in the current antiretroviral era. The mechanisms by which HIV mediates CNS dysfunction are not well understood but have been associated with the presence of long-lasting HIV reservoirs. In the CNS, macrophage/microglia and a small population of astrocytes harbor the virus. However, the low number of HIV-infected cells does not correlate with the high degree of damage, suggesting that mechanisms of damage amplification may be involved. Here, we demonstrate that the survival mechanism of HIV-infected cells and the apoptosis of surrounding uninfected cells is regulated by inter-organelle interactions among the mitochondria/Golgi/endoplasmic reticulum system and the associated signaling mediated by IP₃ and calcium. We identified that latently HIV-infected astrocytes had elevated intracellular levels of IP₃, a master regulator second messenger, which diffuses via gap junctions into neighboring uninfected astrocytes resulting in their apoptosis. In addition, using laser capture microdissection, we confirmed that bystander apoptosis of uninfected astrocytes and the survival of HIV-infected astrocytes were dependent on mitochondrial function, intracellular calcium, and IP₃ signaling. Blocking gap junction channels did not prevent an increase in IP₃ or inter-organelle dysfunction in HIV-infected cells but reduced the amplification of apoptosis into uninfected neighboring cells. Our data provide a mechanistic explanation for bystander damage induced by surviving infected cells that serve as viral reservoirs and provide potential targets for interventions to reduce the devastating consequences of HIV within the brain.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Encounter Structure and its Regulatory Proteins

In fungi, the endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria encounter structure (ERMES) is present between the endoplasmic reticulon (ER) and mitochondria to promote the formation of the ER-mitochondria contact sites. Four constitutive components (Mmm1, Mdm12, Mdm34, and Mdm10) assemble to form the ERMES complex while regulator proteins are required for regulating the organization and function of the ERMES complex. Multiple regulator proteins, including Gem1, Lam6, Tom7, and Emr1, of the ERMES complex, have been identified recently. In this review, we discuss the organization of the ERMES complex and the roles of the regulator proteins of the ERMES complex.