A transmission electron microscope study of Néel skyrmion magnetic textures in multilayer thin film systems with large interfacial chiral interaction

Curved Nanomagnets: An Archetype for the Skyrmionic States at Ambient Conditions

Stabilizing magnetic skyrmions is a critical issue in spintronics, impacting data storage and computing. This study investigates skyrmion and skyrmionium phenomena within a hexagonal array of curved nanomagnets. Utilizing atomistic calculations, micromagnetic simulations, and experimental methods such as magnetic force microscopy and electron holography, we analyze the interplay between magnetic parameters, curvature, and the interfacial Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction (iDMI) in the formation of these structures. We observed that isolated skyrmions and mixed skyrmionic phases can spontaneously form in a symmetric Pt/Co/Pt multilayer curved nanomagnet matrix without external fields at room temperature. Our findings highlight the considerable influence of geometric curvature on iDMI, providing insights for engineering skyrmionic configurations. This research enhances our understanding of nanomagnetism and contributes to the advancement of skyrmion-based technologies.

Exploring deep learning models for 4D-STEM-DPC data processing

For the study of magnetic materials at the nanoscale, differential phase contrast (DPC) imaging is a potent tool. With the advancements in direct detector technology, and consequent popularity gain for four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM), there has been an ongoing development of new and enhanced ways for STEM-DPC big data processing. Conventional algorithms are experimentally tailored, and so in this article we explore how supervised learning with convolutional neural networks (CNN) can be utilized for automated and consistent processing of STEM-DPC data. Two different approaches are investigated, one with direct tracking of the beam with regression analysis, and one where a modified U-net is used for direct beam segmentation as a pre-processing step. The CNNs are trained on experimentally obtained 4D-STEM data, enabling them to effectively handle data collected under similar instrument acquisition parameters. The model outputs are compared to conventional algorithms, particularly in how they process data in the presence of strong diffraction contrast, and how they affect domain wall profiles and width measurement.

Magnetic field observation in a magnetic tunnel junction by scanning transmission electron microscopy

A magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ) consists of two ferromagnetic layers separated by a thin insulating layer. MTJs show tunnel magnetoresistance effect, where the resistance in the direction perpendicular to the insulator layer drastically changes depending on the magnetization directions (parallel or antiparallel) in the ferromagnetic layers. However, direct observation of local magnetizations inside MTJs has been challenging. In this study, we demonstrate direct observation of magnetic flux density distribution inside epitaxially grown Fe/MgO/Fe layers using differential phase contrast scanning transmission electron microscopy. By utilizing newly developed tilt-scan averaging system for suppressing diffraction contrasts, we clearly visualize parallel and antiparallel states of ferromagnetic layers at nanometer resolution.

Observation by SANS and PNR of pure Néel-type domain wall profiles and skyrmion suppression below room temperature in magnetic [Pt/CoFeB/Ru]10 multilayers

We report investigations of the magnetic textures in periodic multilayers [Pt(1 nm)/(CoFeB(0.8 nm)/Ru(1.4 nm)]10 using polarised neutron reflectometry (PNR) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS). The multilayers are known to host skyrmions stabilized by Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interactions induced by broken inversion symmetry and spin-orbit coupling at the asymmetric interfaces. From depth-dependent PNR measurements, we observed well-defined structural features and obtained the layer-resolved magnetization profiles. The in-plane magnetization of the CoFeB layers calculated from fitting of the PNR profiles is found to be in excellent agreement with magnetometry data. Using SANS as a bulk probe of the entire multilayer, we observe long-period magnetic stripe domains and skyrmion ensembles with full orientational disorder at room temperature. No sign of skyrmions is found below 250 K, which we suggest is due to an increase of an effective magnetic anisotropy in the CoFeB layer on cooling that suppresses skyrmion stability. Using polarised SANS at room temperature, we prove the existence of pure Néel-type windings in both stripe domain and skyrmion regimes. No Bloch-type winding admixture, i.e. an indication for hybrid windings, is detected within the measurement sensitivity, in good agreement with expectations according to our micromagnetic modelling of the multilayers. Our findings using neutron techniques provide valuable microscopic insights into the rich magnetic behavior of skyrmion-hosting multilayers, which are essential for the advancement of future skyrmion-based spintronic devices.

Observation of Néel-type skyrmions in acentric self-intercalated Cr1+δTe2

Transition-metal dichalcogenides intercalated with 3d-transition metals within the van der Waals (vdW) gaps have been the focus of intense investigations owing to their fascinating structural and magnetic properties. At certain concentrations the intercalated atoms form ordered superstructures that exhibit ferromagnetic or anti-ferromagnetic ordering. Here we show that the self-intercalated compound Cr_1+δTe₂ with δ ≈ 0.3 exhibits a new, so far unseen, three-dimensionally ordered (2×2×2) superstructure. Furthermore, high resolution X-ray diffraction reveals that there is an asymmetric occupation of the two inequivalent vdW gaps in the unit cell. The structure thus lacks inversion symmetry, which, thereby, allows for chiral non-collinear magnetic nanostructures. Indeed, Néel-type skyrmions are directly observed using Lorentz transmission electron microscopy. The skyrmions are stable within the accessible temperature range (100–200 K) as well as in zero magnetic field. The diameter of the Néel skyrmions increases with lamella thickness and varies with applied magnetic field, indicating the role of long-range dipole fields. Our studies show that self-intercalation in vdW materials is a novel route to the formation of synthetic non-collinear spin textures.

Here, Saha et al. show that self-intercalation of e₂Cr atoms in CrTe₂ create an asymmetry in the number of atoms intercalated in the van der Waals gaps between the layers of CrTe₂. This inversion symmetry breaking leads to non-collinear spin-textures and Néel-type magnetic skyrmions over a wide temperature range.

Unveiling the Emergent Traits of Chiral Spin Textures in Magnetic Multilayers

Magnetic skyrmions are topologically wound nanoscale textures of spins whose ambient stability and electrical manipulation in multilayer films have led to an explosion of research activities. While past efforts focused predominantly on isolated skyrmions, recently ensembles of chiral spin textures, consisting of skyrmions and magnetic stripes, are shown to possess rich interactions with potential for device applications. However, several fundamental aspects of chiral spin texture phenomenology remain to be elucidated, including their domain wall (DW) structure, thermodynamic stability, and morphological transitions. Here the evolution of these textural characteristics are unveiled on a tunable multilayer platform-wherein chiral interactions governing spin texture energetics can be widely varied-using a combination of full-field electron and soft X-ray microscopies with numerical simulations. With increasing chiral interactions, the emergence of Néel helicity, followed by a marked reduction in domain compressibility, and finally a transformation in the skyrmion formation mechanism are demonstrated. Together with an analytical model, these experiments establish a comprehensive microscopic framework for investigating and tailoring chiral spin texture character in multilayer films.

Toward quantitative electromagnetic field imaging by differential-phase-contrast scanning transmission electron microscopy

Differential-phase-contrast scanning transmission electron microscopy (DPC STEM) is a technique to directly visualize local electromagnetic field distribution inside materials and devices at very high spatial resolution. Owing to the recent progress in the development of high-speed segmented and pixelated detectors, DPC STEM now constitutes one of the major imaging modes in modern aberration-corrected STEM. While qualitative imaging of electromagnetic fields by DPC STEM is readily possible, quantitative imaging by DPC STEM is still under development because of the several fundamental issues inherent in the technique. In this report, we review the current status and future prospects of DPC STEM for quantitative electromagnetic field imaging from atomic scale to mesoscopic scale.

Revealing 3D magnetization of thin films with soft X-ray tomography: magnetic singularities and topological charges

The knowledge of how magnetization looks inside a ferromagnet is often hindered by the limitations of the available experimental methods which are sensitive only to the surface regions or limited in spatial resolution. Here we report a vector tomographic reconstruction based on soft X-ray transmission microscopy and magnetic dichroism data, which has allowed visualizing the three-dimensional magnetization in a ferromagnetic thin film heterostructure. Different non-trivial topological textures have been resolved and the determination of their topological charge has allowed us to identify a Bloch point and a meron-like texture. Our method relies only on experimental data and might be of wide application and interest in 3D nanomagnetism.

Although magnetic tomography has been used in the past to determine the 3D magnetization of materials its application to thin films remains challenging. Here the authors reconstruct the magnetization of a thin film, enabling the measurement of topological charges of magnetic singularities.

Off-axis electron holography of Néel-type skyrmions in multilayers of heavy metals and ferromagnets

Magnetic skyrmions are complex swirling spin structures that are of interest for applications in energy-efficient memories and logic technologies. Multilayers of heavy metals and ferromagnets have been shown to host magnetic skyrmions at room temperature. Lorentz transmission electron microscopy is often used to study magnetic domain structures in multilayer samples using mainly Fresnel defocus imaging. Here, off-axis electron holography is used to obtain in-focus electron optical phase images of Néel-type domains and skyrmions in an Ir/Fe/Co/Pt multilayer sample. The preparation of the sample, reconstruction of the holograms and influence of sample tilt angle on the signal-to-noise ratio in the phase images are discussed. A good agreement is found between images of individual skyrmions that are stabilized using an external magnetic field and simulated images based on theoretical models of Néel-type skyrmions.

A symmetry-derived mechanism for atomic resolution imaging

We introduce an image-contrast mechanism for scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) that derives from the local symmetry within the specimen. For a given position of the electron probe on the specimen, the image intensity is determined by the degree of similarity between the exit electron-intensity distribution and a chosen symmetry operation applied to that distribution. The contrast mechanism detects both light and heavy atomic columns and is robust with respect to specimen thickness, electron-probe energy, and defocus. Atomic columns appear as sharp peaks that can be significantly narrower than for STEM images using conventional disk and annular detectors. This fundamentally different contrast mechanism complements conventional imaging modes and can be acquired simultaneously with them, expanding the power of STEM for materials characterization.

Skyrmion-electronics: writing, deleting, reading and processing magnetic skyrmions toward spintronic applications

The field of magnetic skyrmions has been actively investigated across a wide range of topics during the last decades. In this topical review, we mainly review and discuss key results and findings in skyrmion research since the first experimental observation of magnetic skyrmions in 2009. We particularly focus on the theoretical, computational and experimental findings and advances that are directly relevant to the spintronic applications based on magnetic skyrmions, i.e. their writing, deleting, reading and processing driven by magnetic field, electric current and thermal energy. We then review several potential applications including information storage, logic computing gates and non-conventional devices such as neuromorphic computing devices. Finally, we discuss possible future research directions on magnetic skyrmions, which also cover rich topics on other topological textures such as antiskyrmions and bimerons in antiferromagnets and frustrated magnets.

Controlled Individual Skyrmion Nucleation at Artificial Defects Formed by Ion Irradiation

Magnetic skyrmions are particle-like deformations in a magnetic texture. They have great potential as information carriers in spintronic devices because of their interesting topological properties and favorable motion under spin currents. A new method of nucleating skyrmions at nanoscale defect sites, created in a controlled manner with focused ion beam irradiation, in polycrystalline magnetic multilayer samples with an interfacial Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction, is reported. This new method has three notable advantages: 1) localization of nucleation; 2) stability over a larger range of external field strengths, including stability at zero field; and 3) existence of skyrmions in material systems where, prior to defect fabrication, skyrmions were not previously obtained by field cycling. Additionally, it is observed that the size of defect nucleated skyrmions is uninfluenced by the defect itself-provided that the artificial defects are controlled to be smaller than the inherent skyrmion size. All of these characteristics are expected to be useful toward the goal of realizing a skyrmion-based spintronic device. This phenomenon is studied with a range of transmission electron microscopy techniques to probe quantitatively the magnetic behavior at the defects with applied field and correlate this with the structural impact of the defects.

Spin structure relation to phase contrast imaging of isolated magnetic Bloch and Néel skyrmions

Magnetic skyrmions are promising candidates for future storage devices with a large data density. A great variety of materials have been found that host skyrmions up to the room-temperature regime. Lorentz microscopy, usually performed in a transmission electron microscope (TEM), is one of the most important tools for characterizing skyrmion samples in real space. Using numerical calculations, this work relates the phase contrast in a TEM to the actual magnetization profile of an isolated Néel or Bloch skyrmion, the two most common skyrmion types. Within the framework of the used skyrmion model, the results are independent of skyrmion size and wall width and scale with sample thickness for purely magnetic specimens. Simple rules are provided to extract the actual skyrmion configuration of pure Bloch or Néel skyrmions without the need of simulations. Furthermore, first differential phase contrast (DPC) measurements on Néel skyrmions that meet experimental expectations are presented and showcase the described principles. The work is relevant for material sciences where it enables the engineering of skyrmion profiles via convenient characterization.

Effect of inter-layer spin diffusion on skyrmion motion in magnetic multilayers

It is well known that skyrmions can be driven using spin-orbit torques due to the spin-Hall effect. Here we show an additional contribution in multilayered stacks arises from vertical spin currents due to inter-layer diffusion of a spin accumulation generated at a skyrmion. This additional interfacial spin torque is similar in form to the in-plane spin transfer torque, but is significantly enhanced in ultra-thin films and acts in the opposite direction to the electron flow. The combination of this diffusive spin torque and the spin-orbit torque results in skyrmion motion which helps to explain the observation of small skyrmion Hall angles even with moderate magnetisation damping values. Further, the effect of material imperfections on threshold currents and skyrmion Hall angle is also investigated. Topographical surface roughness, as small as a single monolayer variation, is shown to be an important contributing factor in ultra-thin films, resulting in good agreement with experimental observations.

Discrete Hall resistivity contribution from Néel skyrmions in multilayer nanodiscs

Magnetic skyrmions are knot-like quasiparticles. They are candidates for non-volatile data storage in which information is moved between fixed read and write terminals. The read-out operation of skyrmion-based spintronic devices will rely on the electrical detection of a single magnetic skyrmion within a nanostructure. Here we present Pt/Co/Ir nanodiscs that support skyrmions at room temperature. We measured the Hall resistivity and simultaneously imaged the spin texture using magnetic scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. The Hall resistivity is correlated to both the presence and size of the skyrmion. The size-dependent part matches the expected anomalous Hall signal when averaging the magnetization over the entire disc. We observed a resistivity contribution that only depends on the number and sign of skyrmion-like objects present in the disc. Each skyrmion gives rise to 22 ± 2 nΩ cm irrespective of its size. This contribution needs to be considered in all-electrical detection schemes applied to skyrmion-based devices. Not only the area of Néel skyrmions but also their number and sign contribute to their Hall resistivity.