1
|
Zhang M, Duan C, Lin W, Wu H, Chen L, Guo H, Yu M, Liu Q, Nie Y, Wang H, Wang S. Levistilide A Exerts a Neuroprotective Effect by Suppressing Glucose Metabolism Reprogramming and Preventing Microglia Polarization Shift: Implications for Parkinson's Disease. Molecules 2024; 29:912. [PMID: 38398662 PMCID: PMC10893236 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29040912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The microglia, displaying diverse phenotypes, play a significant regulatory role in the development, progression, and prognosis of Parkinson's disease. Research has established that glycolytic reprogramming serves as a critical regulator of inflammation initiation in pro-inflammatory macrophages. Furthermore, the modulation of glycolytic reprogramming has the potential to reverse the polarized state of these macrophages. Previous studies have shown that Levistilide A (LA), a phthalide component derived from Angelica sinensis, possesses a range of pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties. In our study, we have examined the impact of LA on inflammatory cytokines and glucose metabolism in microglia induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Furthermore, we explored the effects of LA on the AMPK/mTOR pathway and assessed its neuroprotective potential both in vitro and in vivo. The findings revealed that LA notably diminished the expression of M1 pro-inflammatory factors induced by LPS in microglia, while leaving M2 anti-inflammatory factor expression unaltered. Additionally, it reduced ROS production and suppressed IκB-α phosphorylation levels as well as NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation. Notably, LA exhibited the ability to reverse microglial glucose metabolism reprogramming and modulate the phosphorylation levels of AMPK/mTOR. In vivo experiments further corroborated these findings, demonstrating that LA mitigated the death of TH-positive dopaminergic neurons and reduced microglia activation in the ventral SNpc brain region of the midbrain and the striatum. In summary, LA exhibited neuroprotective benefits by modulating the polarization state of microglia and altering glucose metabolism, highlighting its therapeutic potential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mingjie Zhang
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Congyan Duan
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Weifang Lin
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Honghua Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Component-Based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (H.W.); (L.C.); (H.G.)
| | - Lu Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Component-Based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (H.W.); (L.C.); (H.G.)
| | - Hong Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Component-Based Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (H.W.); (L.C.); (H.G.)
| | - Minyu Yu
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Qi Liu
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Yaling Nie
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Hong Wang
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| | - Shaoxia Wang
- School of Medical Technology, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 10 Poyanghu Road, West Area, Tuanbo New Town, Jinghai District, Tianjin 301617, China; (M.Z.); (C.D.); (W.L.); (M.Y.); (Q.L.); (Y.N.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dzamko N. Cytokine activity in Parkinson's disease. Neuronal Signal 2023; 7:NS20220063. [PMID: 38059210 PMCID: PMC10695743 DOI: 10.1042/ns20220063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The contribution of the immune system to the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative Parkinson's disease (PD) is increasingly being recognised, with alterations in the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system underlying central and peripheral inflammation in PD. As chief modulators of the immune response, cytokines have been intensely studied in the field of PD both in terms of trying to understand their contribution to disease pathogenesis, and if they may comprise much needed therapeutic targets for a disease with no current modifying therapy. This review summarises current knowledge on key cytokines implicated in PD (TNFα, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-10, IL-4 and IL-1RA) that can modulate both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects. Cytokine activity in PD is clearly a complicated process mediated by substantial cross-talk of signalling pathways and the need to balance pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. However, understanding cytokine activity may hold promise for unlocking new insight into PD and how it may be halted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health and the Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2050, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Moradi Vastegani S, Khoshnam SE, Mansouri E, Ghafouri S, Bakhtiari N, Farbood Y, Sarkaki A. Anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and neuroprotective potentials of anethole in Parkinson's disease-like motor and non-motor symptoms induced by rotenone in rats. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:2159-2174. [PMID: 37204660 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-023-01230-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex neurological disorder characterized by a combination of motor and non-motor symptoms (NMS). Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds are considered a potential therapeutic strategy against PD. The present study examined the neuroprotective effects of anethole as a potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent against motor and non-motor deficits induced by rotenone toxicity. Rats were treated with anethole (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg, i.g) concomitantly with rotenone (2 mg/kg, s.c) for 5 weeks. After the treatment, behavioral tests were performed to evaluate motor function and depression-/anxiety-like behaviors. After the behavioral tests, rats were decapitated and brains were removed for histological analysis. Striatum samples were also isolated for neurochemical, and molecular analysis. Our data showed that rotenone-induced motor deficit, anxiety-and depression-like behaviors were significantly improved in rats treated with anethole. Furthermore, anethole treatment reduced inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) and Interleukin 6 (IL-6), and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 in the striatum of rotenone-induced PD rats. Western blot analysis showed that treatment with anethole markedly suppressed caspase-3 activation induced by rotenone. Moreover, histological examination of striatum showed an increase in the number of surviving neurons after treatment with anethole. Anethole also significantly enhanced the striatal levels of dopamine in rotenone-induced PD rats. In addition, treatment with L-Dopa as a positive control group had effects similar to those of anethole on histological, neurochemical, and molecular parameters in rotenone-induced parkinsonian rats. Our results suggested the neuroprotective effects of anethole through anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and antioxidant mechanisms against rotenone-induced toxicity in rats.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sadegh Moradi Vastegani
- Persian Gulf Physiology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Seyed Esmaeil Khoshnam
- Persian Gulf Physiology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Esrafil Mansouri
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Department of Anatomical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Samireh Ghafouri
- Persian Gulf Physiology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Nima Bakhtiari
- Pain Research Center, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Yaghoob Farbood
- Persian Gulf Physiology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.
| | - Alireza Sarkaki
- Medicinal Plant Research Center, Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Persian Gulf Physiology Research Center, Medical Basic Sciences Research Institute, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Huang ZP, Liu SF, Zhuang JL, Li LY, Li MM, Huang YL, Chen YH, Chen XR, Lin S, Ye LC, Chen CN. Role of microglial metabolic reprogramming in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 213:115619. [PMID: 37211170 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by damage to nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Key pathogenic mechanisms underlying PD include alpha-synuclein misfolding and aggregation, impaired protein clearance, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. However, to date, no study has confirmed the specific pathogenesis of PD. Similarly, current PD treatment methods still have shortcomings. Although some emerging therapies have proved effective for PD, the specific mechanism still needs further clarification. Metabolic reprogramming, a term first proposed by Warburg, is applied to the metabolic energy characteristics of tumor cells. Microglia have similar metabolic characteristics. Pro-inflammatory M1 type and anti-inflammatory M2 type are the two types of activated microglia, which exhibit different metabolic patterns in glucose, lipid, amino acid, and iron metabolism. Additionally, mitochondrial dysfunction may be involved in microglial metabolic reprogramming by activating various signaling mechanisms. Functional changes in microglia resulting from metabolic reprogramming can cause changes in the brain microenvironment, thus playing an important role in neuroinflammation or tissue repair. The involvement of microglial metabolic reprogramming in PD pathogenesis has been confirmed. Neuroinflammation and dopaminergic neuronal death can effectively be reduced by inhibiting certain metabolic pathways in M1 microglia or reverting M1 cells to the M2 phenotype. This review summarizes the relationship between microglial metabolic reprogramming and PD and provides strategies for PD treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Ping Huang
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Shu-Fen Liu
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Jian-Long Zhuang
- Prenatal Diagnosis Center, Quanzhou Women's and Children's Hospital, Quanzhou, China
| | - Lin-Yi Li
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Mi-Mi Li
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Ya-Li Huang
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Yan-Hong Chen
- Department of Neurology, Shishi General Hospital, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China
| | - Xiang-Rong Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, Second Clinical Medical College, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, China
| | - Shu Lin
- Center of Neurological and Metabolic Research, Second Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China; Group of Neuroendocrinology, Garvan Institute of Medical Research, 384 Victoria St, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Li-Chao Ye
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China.
| | - Chun-Nuan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Quanzhou, Fujian Province 362000, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Nemutlu Samur D, Akçay G, Yıldırım S, Özkan A, Çeker T, Derin N, Tanrıöver G, Aslan M, Ağar A, Özbey G. Vortioxetine ameliorates motor and cognitive impairments in the rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease via targeting TLR-2 mediated neuroinflammation. Neuropharmacology 2022; 208:108977. [PMID: 35092748 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.108977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms associated with dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic injury. Vortioxetine is a multimodal serotonergic antidepressant with potential procognitive effects. This study aimed to explore the effects of vortioxetine on motor functions, spatial learning and memory, and depression-like behavior in the rotenone-induced rat model of PD. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were daily administered with the rotenone (2 mg·kg-1, s.c.) and/or vortioxetine (10 mg·kg-1, s.c.) for 28 days. Motor functions (rotarod, catalepsy, open-field), depression-like behaviors (sucrose preference test), anxiety (elevated plus maze), and spatial learning and memory abilities (novel object recognition and Morris water maze) were evaluated in behavioral tests. Then immunohistochemical, neurochemical, and biochemical analysis on specific brain areas were performed. Vortioxetine treatment markedly reduced rotenone-induced neurodegeneration, improved motor and cognitive dysfunction, decreased depression-like behaviors without affecting anxiety-like parameters. Vortioxetine also restored the impaired inflammatory response and affected neurotransmitter levels in brain tissues. Interestingly, vortioxetine was thought to trigger a sort of dysfunction in basal ganglia as evidenced by increased Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR-2) and decreased TH immunoreactivity only in substantia nigra tissue of PD rats compared to the control group. The present study indicates that vortioxetine has beneficial effects on motor dysfunction as well as cognitive impairment associated with neurodegeneration in the rotenone-induced PD model. Possible mechanisms underlying these beneficial effects cover TLR-2 inhibition and neurochemical restoration of vortioxetine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dilara Nemutlu Samur
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, 07058, Antalya, Turkey.
| | - Güven Akçay
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biophysics, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Sendegül Yıldırım
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Ayşe Özkan
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Tuğçe Çeker
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Narin Derin
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biophysics, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Gamze Tanrıöver
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Mutay Aslan
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Aysel Ağar
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology, 07058, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Gül Özbey
- Akdeniz University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, 07058, Antalya, Turkey.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sarkar S, Feany MB. Precision Medicine on the Fly: Using Drosophila to Decipher Gene-Environment Interactions in Parkinson's Disease. Toxicol Sci 2021; 182:159-167. [PMID: 34076689 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfab060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Big data approaches have profoundly influenced state-of-the-art in many fields of research, with toxicology being no exception. Here, we use Parkinson's disease as a window through which to explore the challenges of a dual explosion of metabolomic data addressing the myriad environmental exposures individuals experience and genetic analyses implicating many different loci as risk factors for disease. We argue that new experimental approaches are needed to convert the growing body of omics data into molecular mechanisms of disease that can be therapeutically targeted in specific patients. We outline one attractive strategy, which capitalizes on the rapid generation time and advanced molecular tools available in the fruit fly, Drosophila, to provide a platform for mechanistic dissection and drug discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Souvarish Sarkar
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mel B Feany
- Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Rabaneda-Lombarte N, Serratosa J, Bové J, Vila M, Saura J, Solà C. The CD200R1 microglial inhibitory receptor as a therapeutic target in the MPTP model of Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:88. [PMID: 33823877 PMCID: PMC8025338 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02132-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background It is suggested that neuroinflammation, in which activated microglial cells play a relevant role, contributes to the development of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Consequently, the modulation of microglial activation is a potential therapeutic target to be taken into account to act against the dopaminergic neurodegeneration occurring in this neurological disorder. Several soluble and membrane-associated inhibitory mechanisms contribute to maintaining microglial cells in a quiescent/surveillant phenotype in physiological conditions. However, the presence of activated microglial cells in the brain in PD patients suggests that these mechanisms have been somehow overloaded. We focused our interest on one of the membrane-associated mechanisms, the CD200-CD200R1 ligand-receptor pair. Methods The acute MPTP experimental mouse model of PD was used to study the temporal pattern of mRNA expression of CD200 and CD200R1 in the context of MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation. Dopaminergic damage was assessed by tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity, and neuroinflammation was evaluated by the mRNA expression of inflammatory markers and IBA1 and GFAP immunohistochemistry. The effect of the modulation of the CD200-CD200R1 system on MPTP-induced damage was determined by using a CD200R1 agonist or CD200 KO mice. Results MPTP administration resulted in a progressive decrease in TH-positive fibres in the striatum and TH-positive neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, which were accompanied by transient astrogliosis, microgliosis and expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory markers. CD200 mRNA levels rapidly decreased in the ventral midbrain after MPTP treatment, while a transient decrease of CD200R1 mRNA expression was repeatedly observed in this brain area at earlier and later phases. By contrast, a transient increase in CD200R1 expression was observed in striatum. The administration of a CD200R1 agonist resulted in the inhibition of MPTP-induced dopaminergic neurodegeneration, while microglial cells showed signs of earlier activation in CD200-deficient mice. Conclusions Collectively, these findings provide evidence for a correlation between CD200-CD200R1 alterations, glial activation and neuronal loss. CD200R1 stimulation reduces MPTP-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons, and CD200 deficiency results in earlier microglial activation, suggesting that the potentiation of CD200R1 signalling is a possible approach to controlling neuroinflammation and neuronal death in PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neus Rabaneda-Lombarte
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.,Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Serratosa
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Bové
- Vall d'Hebrón Research Institute-CIBERNED, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miquel Vila
- Vall d'Hebrón Research Institute-CIBERNED, Barcelona, Spain.,Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Saura
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Unit, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carme Solà
- Department of Cerebral Ischemia and Neurodegeneration, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August-Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|