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Sánchez-Terrón G, Martínez R, Morcuende D, Caballero V, Estévez M. Pomegranate supplementation alleviates dyslipidemia and the onset of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Wistar rats by shifting microbiota and producing urolithin-like microbial metabolites. Food Funct 2024. [PMID: 38661445 DOI: 10.1039/d4fo00688g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), obesity and related chronic diseases are major non-communicable diseases with high mortality rates worldwide. While dietary sugars are known to be responsible for insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome (MetS), the underlying pathophysiological effects of sustained fructose consumption require further elucidation. We hypothesize that certain bioactive compounds (i.e. punicalagin and ellagic acid) from dietary pomegranate could counteract the harmful effects of sustained fructose consumption in terms of obesity and liver damage. The present study aimed to elucidate both the molecular mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology associated with fructose intake and the effect of a punicalagin-rich commercial pomegranate dietary supplement (P) used as a nutritional strategy to alleviate fructose-induced metabolic impairments. Thus, nineteen Wistar rats fed on a basal commercial feed were supplemented with either 30% (w/v) fructose in drinking water (F; n = 7) or 30% (w/v) fructose solution plus 0.2% (w/v) P (F + P; n = 6) for 10 weeks. The results were compared to those from a control group fed on the basal diet and provided with drinking water (C; n = 6). Body weight and energy intake were registered weekly. P supplementation decreased fat depots, counteracted the dyslipidemia caused by F and improved markers of liver injury including steatosis. The study of the microbiota by metagenomics and urine by untargeted MS-based metabolomics revealed microbial metabolites from P that may be responsible for these health benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guadalupe Sánchez-Terrón
- TECAL Research Group, Meat and Meat Products Research Institute (IPROCAR), Universidad de Extremadura (UEX, ROR-ID 0174shg90), Cáceres, 10003, Spain.
| | - Remigio Martínez
- Animal Health Department, Animal Health and Zoonoses Research Group (GISAZ), UIC Zoonosis and Emergent Diseases (ENZOEM Competitive Research Unit), Universidad of Córdoba (UCO, ROR-ID 05yc77b46), Córdoba, 14014, Spain
| | - David Morcuende
- TECAL Research Group, Meat and Meat Products Research Institute (IPROCAR), Universidad de Extremadura (UEX, ROR-ID 0174shg90), Cáceres, 10003, Spain.
| | - Víctor Caballero
- TECAL Research Group, Meat and Meat Products Research Institute (IPROCAR), Universidad de Extremadura (UEX, ROR-ID 0174shg90), Cáceres, 10003, Spain.
| | - Mario Estévez
- TECAL Research Group, Meat and Meat Products Research Institute (IPROCAR), Universidad de Extremadura (UEX, ROR-ID 0174shg90), Cáceres, 10003, Spain.
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Wu N, Liu T, Tian M, Liu C, Ma S, Cao H, Bian H, Wang L, Feng Y, Qi J. Albumin, an interesting and functionally diverse protein, varies from 'native' to 'effective' (Review). Mol Med Rep 2024; 29:24. [PMID: 38099350 PMCID: PMC10784728 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2023.13147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Human serum albumins (HSAs) are synthesized in the liver and are the most abundant proteins in plasma of healthy human. They play an important role in the pathophysiological processes of the liver and even the whole organism. Previous studies have mainly focused on the regulation of HSAs' expression. However, with the progress of research in recent years, it has been found that the content of circulating albumin cannot fully reflect the biological function of albumin itself. Given the aforementioned fact, the concept of serum 'effective albumin concentration' has been proposed. It refers to the content of albumin that is structurally and functionally intact. Alterations in the molecular structure and function of albumin have been reported in a variety of diseases, including liver disease. Moreover, these changes have been verified to affect the progression of oxidative stress‑related diseases. However, the link between albumin structure and function has not been fully elaborated, and the mechanisms by which different forms of albumin affect disease also need to be further investigated. In this context, the present review mainly expounded the biological characteristics and functions of albumin, summarized the different types of post‑translational modification of albumin, and discussed their functional changes and possible mechanisms in non‑alcoholic fatty liver disease, alcoholic hepatitis, viral hepatitis and different stages of cirrhosis. This will help to improve understanding of the role of albumin in disease development and provide a more comprehensive physiological basis for it in disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nijin Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Tiantian Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Miaomiao Tian
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Chenxi Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Shujun Ma
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Huiling Cao
- Department of Immunology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Hongjun Bian
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Le Wang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Yuemin Feng
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering and Technological Research Center for Liver Diseases Prevention and Control, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
| | - Jianni Qi
- Shandong Provincial Engineering and Technological Research Center for Liver Diseases Prevention and Control, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
- Central Laboratory, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250021, P.R. China
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Boss K, Waterstradt K, Schnurr K, Paar M, Stolpe S, Ickerott P, Wieneke U, Spitthöver R, Oettl K, Kribben A. Binding and detoxification efficiency of albumin decline after haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2024; 39:215-221. [PMID: 37558390 PMCID: PMC10828194 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfad133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Albumin, as the most abundant plasma protein, represents a target structure for both drug and physicochemical therapeutic approaches to eliminate uraemic toxins more efficiently. Potentially, this approach could reduce mortality of haemodialysis patients. However, little is known about albumin functional properties in these patients and its alteration by haemodialysis treatment. METHODS The binding and detoxification efficiency of albumin were assessed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy using a spin-labelled fatty acid. Binding efficiency (BE) reflects strength and amount of bound fatty acids under certain ethanol concentration. Detoxification efficiency (DTE) reflects the molecular flexibility of the patient's albumin molecule, thus the ability to change the conformation depending on ethanol concentration. Percentage of BE and DTE are depicted in relation to healthy individuals (100%). RESULTS Fifty-eight patients (59% male, median age 68 years, median time on haemodialysis 32 months) were included in the study. Before haemodialysis treatment, albumin binding and detoxification efficiency were substantially below healthy individuals [median BE 52% (interquartile range, IQR, 45%-59%); median DTE 38% (IQR 32-49%)]. After haemodialysis treatment, median BE and DTE significantly decreased [BE 28% (IQR 20-41%); DTE 11% (IQR 7%-27%; P < .001)]. BE and DTE decline after haemodialysis was not dependent on age, sex or treatment modalities, but was to a certain extent on the level of non-esterified fatty acids. CONCLUSION Albumin binding and detoxification efficiency of fatty acids in maintenance haemodialysis patients were substantially below those in healthy individuals and even declined after dialysis treatment. These findings might be helpful when considering new therapeutic approaches in maintenance haemodialysis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Boss
- Department of Nephrology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | | | | | - Margret Paar
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Susanne Stolpe
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Biometry and Epidemiology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Philipp Ickerott
- Gemeinschaftspraxis für Nieren- und Hochdruckkrankheiten Essen-Steele, Essen, Germany
| | | | | | - Karl Oettl
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Andreas Kribben
- Department of Nephrology, University Hospital Essen, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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Romero-González G, Rodríguez-Chitiva N, Cañameras C, Paúl-Martínez J, Urrutia-Jou M, Troya M, Soler-Majoral J, Graterol Torres F, Sánchez-Bayá M, Calabia J, Bover J. Albuminuria, Forgotten No More: Underlining the Emerging Role in CardioRenal Crosstalk. J Clin Med 2024; 13:777. [PMID: 38337471 PMCID: PMC10856688 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13030777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Kidneys have an amazing ability to adapt to adverse situations, both acute and chronic. In the presence of injury, the kidney is able to activate mechanisms such as autoregulation or glomerular hyperfiltration to maintain the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). While these adaptive mechanisms can occur in physiological situations such as pregnancy or high protein intake, they can also occur as an early manifestation of diseases such as diabetes mellitus or as an adaptive response to nephron loss. Although over-activation of these mechanisms can lead to intraglomerular hypertension and albuminuria, other associated mechanisms related to the activation of inflammasome pathways, including endothelial and tubular damage, and the hemodynamic effects of increased activity of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, among others, are recognized pathways for the development of albuminuria. While the role of albuminuria in the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is well known, there is increasing evidence of its negative association with cardiovascular events. For example, the presence of albuminuria is associated with an increased likelihood of developing heart failure (HF), even in patients with normal GFR, and the role of albuminuria in atherosclerosis has recently been described. Albuminuria is associated with adverse outcomes such as mortality and HF hospitalization. On the other hand, it is increasingly known that the systemic effects of congestion are mainly preceded by increased central venous pressure and transmitted retrogradely to organs such as the liver or kidney. With regard to the latter, a new entity called congestive nephropathy is emerging, in which increased renal venous pressure can lead to albuminuria. Fortunately, the presence of albuminuria is modifiable and new treatments are now available to reverse this common risk factor in the cardiorenal interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregorio Romero-González
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
- International Renal Research Institute of Vicenza, 36100 Vicenza, Italy
| | - Néstor Rodríguez-Chitiva
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Carles Cañameras
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
| | - Javier Paúl-Martínez
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Marina Urrutia-Jou
- Nephrology Department, University Hospital Joan XXIII, 43005 Tarragona, Spain;
| | - Maribel Troya
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Jordi Soler-Majoral
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Fredzzia Graterol Torres
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Maya Sánchez-Bayá
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
| | - Jordi Calabia
- Nephrology Department, University Hospital Josep Trueta, IdIBGi Research Institute, Universitat de Girona, 17007 Girona, Spain;
| | - Jordi Bover
- Nephrology Department, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, 08916 Badalona, Spain; (G.R.-G.); (N.R.-C.); (C.C.); (J.P.-M.); (M.T.); (J.S.-M.); (F.G.T.); (M.S.-B.)
- REMAR-IGTP Group (Kidney-Affecting Diseases Research Group), Germans Trias i Pujol Research Institute (IGTP), 08916 Badalona, Spain
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Zhang J, Zhong L, Min J, Wei Y, Ding L. Relationship between blood urea nitrogen to serum albumin ratio and short-term mortality among patients from the surgical intensive care unit: a population-based real-world study. BMC Anesthesiol 2023; 23:416. [PMID: 38114922 PMCID: PMC10729441 DOI: 10.1186/s12871-023-02384-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients admitted to the surgical intensive care unit (SICU) often suffer from multi-organ dysfunction and have a high mortality rate. Therefore, finding a simple but effective clinical indicator to predict the prognosis of patients is essential to improve their survival. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between blood urea nitrogen to serum albumin ratio (B/A) and short-term mortality among patients from the SICU. METHODS All eligible adult patients admitted to the SICU from the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care IV (MIMIC-IV) database were recruited for this study. Participants were divided into a death group (n = 638) and a survival group (n = 2,048) based on the 90-day prognosis, and then grouped by B/A quartiles. We used restricted cubic splines (RCS) to visually analyze the correlation of B/A with 30- and 90-day risk of death. Cumulative survival rates were estimated using Kaplan-Meier survival curves according to B/A quartiles and evaluated using the log-rank test. Cox proportional risk models were developed and sensitivity analyses were performed to explore whether B/A was independently associated with short-term outcomes in SICU patients. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were analyzed to ascertain the value of B/A for prognosticating 90-day outcome. RESULTS A total of 2686 participants were included in the final study, and their 30-day and 90-day all-cause mortality rates were 17.61% and 23.75%, respectively. The differences in 30-day and 90-day mortality rates were statistically significant among the four groups of patients (all p < 0.001). RCS curves showed that B/A was linearly associated with the risk of 30-day and 90-day all-cause mortality in SICU patients (χ2 = 0.960, p = 0.811; χ2 = 1.940, p = 0.584). Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that the 90-day cumulative survival rate gradually decreased as B/A increased, with patients in the highest quartile of B/A having the lowest survival rate (p < 0.001). Cox regression indicated that elevated B/A (> 9.69) was an independent risk factor for 30-day and 90-day all-cause mortality in SICU patients. The analysis of ROC curves demonstrated that B/A exhibited a significant predictive ability for 90-day mortality, with an optimal threshold of 6.587, a sensitivity of 56.9%, and a specificity of 64.8%. CONCLUSIONS Elevated B/A (> 9.69) on admission was an independent risk factor for short-term mortality in SICU patients, and clinicians should pay more attention to this group of patients and intervene clinically at an early stage to reduce mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyu Zhang
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Huzhou Central Hospital, The Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, 313000, China
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital Huzhou University, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Lei Zhong
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Huzhou Central Hospital, The Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, 313000, China
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital Huzhou University, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Jie Min
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Huzhou Central Hospital, The Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, 313000, China
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital Huzhou University, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Yunhai Wei
- Department of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Huzhou Central Hospital, The Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, 313000, China
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital Huzhou University, Huzhou, 313000, China
| | - Lan Ding
- Department of Intensive Care Unit, Huzhou Central Hospital, The Fifth School of Clinical Medicine of Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Huzhou, 313000, China.
- Huzhou Central Hospital, Affiliated Central Hospital Huzhou University, Huzhou, 313000, China.
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Maniar M, Kohn J, Murthy NS. Asymmetrical interactions between nanoparticles and proteins arising from deformation upon adsorption to surfaces. Biophys Chem 2023; 302:107098. [PMID: 37677920 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2023.107098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Drug release from polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) is governed by their adsorption onto cell membranes and transmigration across cell walls. These steps are influenced by their interactions with proteins near the cells. These interactions were investigated by studying the sequential adsorption of plasma proteins, albumin (Alb) and fibrinogen (Fg), and micellar NPs using quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCMD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The three NPs in the study all have poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) shells but different cores: amorphous poly(propylene oxide) (PPO), crystalline polycaprolactone (PCL), and poly(desaminotyrosyl-tyrosine octyl ester-co-suberic acid) (DTO-SA). None of the NPs adsorbed onto a pre-adsorbed Fg layer. On the other hand, when the deposition sequence was reversed, Fg was adsorbed onto DTO-SA NP and PCL NP surfaces, but not onto the PPO NP surface. The interactions with Alb were different: DTO-SA did not adsorb onto Alb and vice versa; PPO NP adsorbed onto an Alb layer, but Alb did not adsorb onto the PPO NP layer; and PCL NP reversibly adsorbed onto Alb, but Alb displaced pre-adsorbed PCL NP. Thus, in most instances, the adsorption behavior was asymmetric in that it was dependent on the order of arrival of the adsorbates at the substrate. SAXS data did not show evidence for complex formation in solution. Thus, the solution behavior appears not to be a predictor of the interaction of proteins and the NPs near surfaces. Differing strengths of pairwise interactions of proteins, NPs and substrates account for this adsorption behavior. These differences in interactions could be the results of deformation of the adsorbates immobilized at the surface and the different degrees of surface remodeling that occur upon adsorption. Deformation could lead to disassembly of the NPs that has implications on their ability to release their payload of drugs upon adsorption onto tissue surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Maniar
- Laboratory for Biomaterials Research, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Joachim Kohn
- Laboratory for Biomaterials Research, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - N Sanjeeva Murthy
- Laboratory for Biomaterials Research, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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Shi M, Duan X, Zheng X, Lu D, Ge Y, Zhang N, Liu Y, You J, Xue H, Yin L. Quantification of human serum albumin by combining chymotrypsin/trypsin digestion coupled with LC-MS/MS technique. Anal Biochem 2023; 680:115316. [PMID: 37689095 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2023.115316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
The quantification of albumin is important in clinical medicine because the concentration of albumin in biological fluids is closely related to human health. In this study, we developed a highly selective and robust assay to determine human serum albumin (HSA) in human plasma by combining chymotrypsin/trypsin digestion coupled with targeted LC-MS/MS technique. Human plasma samples were denatured, reduced, alkylated, and digested with both chymotrypsin and trypsin to generate surrogate peptides. A unique chymotryptic peptide (NAETF) arising from human serum albumin was finally selected for targeted LC-MS/MS detection and quantification. Numerous parameters related to the targeted LC-MS/MS assay were evaluated, including lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ), linearity range, enzyme digestion efficiency, accuracy and precision. The LC-MS/MS assay was linear in the concentration range 0.05-1 mg/mL with intra-day and inter-day precision <10.2% and accuracy ranging from -3.94% to 4.89%. The assay was successfully applied to determine HSA in 148 human plasma samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiyun Shi
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China; Aim Honesty Biopharmaceutical Co. LTD, Dalian, 116600, PR China
| | - Xujian Duan
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China
| | - Xinyue Zheng
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China
| | - Di Lu
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China
| | - Yuncheng Ge
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China
| | - Ning Zhang
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China
| | - Yajun Liu
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China
| | - Jiansong You
- Aim Honesty Biopharmaceutical Co. LTD, Dalian, 116600, PR China
| | - Hongyu Xue
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China.
| | - Lei Yin
- School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dalian University of Technology, Panjin, 1242(21), PR China.
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Fan M, Li Z, Feng G, Zhang Y, Zhang W, Yang C, Shao Y, Liao C, Xu G, Xu Z. Overcome the "Buckets Effect": Integration of AIEgens into Proteins for Fluorescence-Enhanced Two-Photon Imaging. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2301568. [PMID: 37499068 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202301568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Luminogens with aggregation-induced emission characteristics (AIEgens) are considered good options for two-photon (2P) probes, owing to their flexibility of design, heavy-metal-free composition, and resistance to photobleaching. However, the design principles for large 2P absorption cross-section (δ) generally require high coplanarity, strong donor-acceptor (D-A) interactions, and long conjugation, which can severely weaken the brightness of AIEgens at the aggregated state and undermine their potential in 2P fluorescence imaging (2PFI). Exploration of a feasible approach to overcome the "Buckets Effect" of AIEgen-based 2P probes is thus a fascinating yet challenging task. Herein, an AIEgen, namely (Z)-2-(4-aminophenyl)-3-(5-(4-(bis(4-methoxyphenyl)amino)phenyl)thiophen-2-yl)acrylonitrile (MTAA) is designed to have a big δ according to the calculation result and a low fluorescence quantum yield (QY) of 2.2% in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). Impressively, upon integrating into bovine serum albumin (BSA), the protein-sized MTAA@BSA dots exhibit a 25-fold higher fluorescence QY compared to MTAA molecules, contributing to an imaging depth of 818 µm in the brain vasculature. The retention and clearance of MTAA@BSA dots in the liver and kidney are also studied using 2PFI. Overall, this work provides a facile approach to overcome the "Buckets Effect" of AIEgen to generate highly efficient, reliable, and biocompatible 2P probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaozhuang Fan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Zhengzheng Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Gang Feng
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Yibin Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Wenguang Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Chengbin Yang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Yonghong Shao
- College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Changrui Liao
- Guangdong and Hong Kong Joint Research Centre for Optical Fiber Sensors, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Gaixia Xu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
| | - Zhourui Xu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Biomedical Measurements and Ultrasound Imaging, School of Biomedical Engineering, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518055, China
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9
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Liu Z, Trifonova D, Tulaeva I, Riabova K, Karsonova A, Kozlov E, Elisyutina O, Khaitov M, Focke-Tejkl M, Chen TH, Karaulov A, Valenta R. Albumins represent highly cross-reactive animal allergens. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1241518. [PMID: 37928538 PMCID: PMC10623431 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1241518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Albumins from animals are highly cross-reactive allergens for patients suffering from immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergy. Approximately 20-30% of cat and dog allergic patients show IgE reactivity and mount IgE-mediated allergic reactions to cat and dog albumin. It is astonishing that allergic patients can develop specific IgE responses against animal albumins because these proteins exhibit a more than 70% sequence identity to human serum albumin (HSA) which is the most abundant protein in the blood of the human body. The sequence identity of cat albumin (Fel d 2) and dog albumin (Can f 3) and HSA are 82% and 80%, respectively. Given the high degree of sequence identity between the latter two allergens and HSA one would expect that immunological tolerance would prohibit IgE sensitization to Fel d 2 and Can f 3. Here we discuss two possibilities for how IgE sensitization to Fel d 2 and Can f 3 may develop. One possibility is the failed development of immune tolerance in albumin-allergic patients whereas the other possibility is highly selective immune tolerance to HSA but not to Fel d 2 and Can f 3. If the first assumption is correct it should be possible to detect HSA-specific T cell responses and HSA-containing immune complexes in sensitized patients. In the latter scenario few differences in the sequences of Fel d 2 and Can f 3 as compared to HSA would be responsible for the development of selective T cell and B cell responses towards Fel d 2 as well as Can f 3. However, the immunological mechanisms of albumin sensitization have not yet been investigated in detail although this will be important for the development of allergen-specific prevention and allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) strategies for allergy to albumin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zicheng Liu
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Daria Trifonova
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Inna Tulaeva
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ksenja Riabova
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Antonina Karsonova
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Evgeny Kozlov
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga Elisyutina
- National Research Center, NRCI Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency (FMBA) of Russia, Moscow, Russia
- RUDN University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Musa Khaitov
- National Research Center, NRCI Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency (FMBA) of Russia, Moscow, Russia
- Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Margarete Focke-Tejkl
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Karl Landsteiner University of Healthcare, Krems, Austria
| | | | - Alexander Karaulov
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Rudolf Valenta
- Division of Immunopathology, Department of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Laboratory for Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Immunology and Allergology, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
- National Research Center, NRCI Institute of Immunology, Federal Medical-Biological Agency (FMBA) of Russia, Moscow, Russia
- Karl Landsteiner University of Healthcare, Krems, Austria
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Paar M, Fengler VH, Reibnegger G, Schnurr K, Waterstradt K, Schwaminger SP, Stauber RE, Oettl K. Determination of binding characteristics as a measure for effective albumin using different methods. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2023:130427. [PMID: 37454915 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2023.130427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Transport functions of albumin are of clinical and pharmacological interest and are determined by albumin's properties like posttranslational modifications or bound ligands. Both are affected in pathological conditions and in therapeutic grade albumin solutions. The term effective albumin concentration was introduced as a measure of functionally intact albumin. Our aim was to evaluate the impact of ligands and modifications with different approaches as a measure of effective albumin. APPROACH & RESULTS We used a spin labelled fatty acid and dansylsarcosine to characterize binding properties of albumin i) prepared from plasma of patients and healthy control donors, ii) measured directly out of plasma, iii) research grade albumin, iv) in vitro modified albumin, and v) therapeutic infusion solutions before and after removal of stabilizers. Bilirubin is the main determinant for binding function in patients' albumin. In in vitro prepared albumin bound fatty acids correlated with impaired binding. Human nonmercaptalbumin1, not human nonmercaptalbumin2, showed reduced binding properties. Binding and transport function of therapeutic albumin was severely impaired and restored by filtration. Glycation of research grade albumin had no effect on the binding of dansylsarcosine and only a minor effect on fatty acid binding. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that effective albumin -in terms of binding properties- is primarily determined by bound ligands and only to a minor extent by posttranslational modifications. Characterizing albumin directly from plasma better reflects the physiological situation whereas in the case of therapeutic grade albumin stabilizers should be removed to make its binding properties accessible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margret Paar
- Medical University of Graz, Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Vera H Fengler
- University of Graz, Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Humboldtstrasse 50, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Gilbert Reibnegger
- Medical University of Graz, Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Kerstin Schnurr
- MedInnovation GmbH, Wissenschaftsstandort Berlin-Adlershof (WISTA), Groß-Berliner Damm 151, 12487 Berlin, Germany
| | - Katja Waterstradt
- MedInnovation GmbH, Wissenschaftsstandort Berlin-Adlershof (WISTA), Groß-Berliner Damm 151, 12487 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian P Schwaminger
- Medical University of Graz, Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6, 8010, Graz, Austria; BioTechMed-Graz, Mozartgasse 12, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Rudolf E Stauber
- Medical University of Graz, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Auenbruggerplatz 15, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Karl Oettl
- Medical University of Graz, Otto Loewi Research Center, Division of Medicinal Chemistry, Neue Stiftingtalstrasse 6, 8010, Graz, Austria.
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11
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Nocentini A, Bonardi A, Pratesi S, Gratteri P, Dani C, Supuran CT. Pharmaceutical strategies for preventing toxicity and promoting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions of bilirubin. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2022; 37:487-501. [PMID: 34986721 PMCID: PMC8741241 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2021.2020773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilirubin (BR) is the final product of haem catabolism. Disruptions along BR metabolic/transport pathways resulting from inherited disorders can increase plasma BR concentration (hyperbilirubinaemia). Unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia may induce BR accumulation in brain, potentially causing irreversible neurological damage, a condition known as BR encephalopathy or kernicterus, to which newborns are especially vulnerable. Numerous pharmaceutical strategies, mostly based on hemoperfusion, have been proposed over the last decades to identify new valid, low-risk alternatives for BR removal from plasma. On the other hand, accumulating evidence indicates that BR produces health benefits due to its potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory action with a significant potential for the treatment of a multitude of diseases. The present manuscript reviews both such aspects of BR pharmacology, gathering literature data on applied pharmaceutical strategies adopted to: (i) reduce the plasma BR concentration for preventing neurotoxicity; (ii) produce a therapeutic effect based on BR efficacy in the treatment of many disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Nocentini
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Alessandro Bonardi
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Simone Pratesi
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Careggi University, Hospital of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Paola Gratteri
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Section, Laboratory of Molecular Modelling Cheminformatics & QSAR, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Carlo Dani
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Careggi University, Hospital of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Claudiu T. Supuran
- Department of Neurosciences, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health, Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Section, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
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Abstract
Structure-based drug design (SBDD) is a prominent method in rational drug development and has traditionally benefitted from the atomic models of protein targets obtained using X-ray crystallography at cryogenic temperatures. In this perspective, we highlight recent advances in the development of structural techniques that are capable of probing dynamic information about protein targets. First, we discuss advances in the field of X-ray crystallography including serial room-temperature crystallography as a method for obtaining high-resolution conformational dynamics of protein-inhibitor complexes. Next, we look at cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoEM), another high-resolution technique that has recently been used to study proteins and protein complexes that are too difficult to crystallize. Finally, we present small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) as a potential high-throughput screening tool to identify inhibitors that target protein complexes and protein oligomerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cody Aplin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Shawn K Milano
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Kara A Zielinski
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Lois Pollack
- School of Applied and Engineering Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Richard A Cerione
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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13
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Gligorijević N, Minić S, Nedić O. Structural changes of proteins in liver cirrhosis and consequential changes in their function. World J Gastroenterol 2022; 28:3780-3792. [PMID: 36157540 PMCID: PMC9367231 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v28.i29.3780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The liver is the site of synthesis of the majority of circulating proteins. Besides initial polypeptide synthesis, sophisticated machinery is involved in the further processing of proteins by removing parts of them and/or adding functional groups and small molecules tailoring the final molecule to suit its physiological purpose. Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) design a network of molecules with the common protein ancestor but with slightly or considerably varying activity/localization/purpose. PTMs can change under pathological conditions, giving rise to aberrant or overmodified proteins. Undesired changes in the structure of proteins most often accompany undesired changes in their function, such as reduced activity or the appearance of new effects. Proper protein processing is essential for the reactions in living beings and crucial for the overall quality control. Modifications that occur on proteins synthesized in the liver whose PTMs are cirrhosis-related are oxidation, nitration, glycosylation, acetylation, and ubiquitination. Some of them predominantly affect proteins that remain in liver cells, whereas others predominantly occur on proteins that leave the liver or originate from other tissues and perform their function in the circulation. Altered PTMs of certain proteins are potential candidates as biomarkers of liver-related diseases, including cirrhosis. This review will focus on PTMs on proteins whose structural changes in cirrhosis exert or are suspected to exert the most serious functional consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Gligorijević
- Department of Metabolism, University of Belgrade-Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy, Belgrade 11080, Serbia
| | - Simeon Minić
- Centre of Excellence for Molecular Food Sciences and Department of Biochemistry, University of Belgrade-Faculty of Chemistry, Belgrade 11000, Serbia
| | - Olgica Nedić
- Department of Metabolism, University of Belgrade-Institute for the Application of Nuclear Energy, Belgrade 11080, Serbia
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14
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Hierons SJ, Marsh JS, Wu D, Blindauer CA, Stewart AJ. The Interplay between Non-Esterified Fatty Acids and Plasma Zinc and Its Influence on Thrombotic Risk in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221810140. [PMID: 34576303 PMCID: PMC8471329 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221810140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Thrombosis is a major comorbidity of obesity and type-2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Despite the development of numerous effective treatments and preventative strategies to address thrombotic disease in such individuals, the incidence of thrombotic complications remains high. This suggests that not all the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these events have been identified or targeted. Non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) are increasingly regarded as a nexus between obesity, insulin resistance, and vascular disease. Notably, plasma NEFA levels are consistently elevated in obesity and T2DM and may impact hemostasis in several ways. A potentially unrecognized route of NEFA-mediated thrombotic activity is their ability to disturb Zn2+ speciation in the plasma. Zn2+ is a potent regulator of coagulation and its availability in the plasma is monitored carefully through buffering by human serum albumin (HSA). The binding of long-chain NEFAs such as palmitate and stearate, however, trigger a conformational change in HSA that reduces its ability to bind Zn2+, thus increasing the ion’s availability to bind and activate coagulation proteins. NEFA-mediated perturbation of HSA-Zn2+ binding is thus predicted to contribute to the prothrombotic milieu in obesity and T2DM, representing a novel targetable disease mechanism in these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J. Hierons
- School of Medicine, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9TF, Fife, UK; (S.J.H.); (J.S.M.); (D.W.)
| | - Jordan S. Marsh
- School of Medicine, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9TF, Fife, UK; (S.J.H.); (J.S.M.); (D.W.)
| | - Dongmei Wu
- School of Medicine, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9TF, Fife, UK; (S.J.H.); (J.S.M.); (D.W.)
| | | | - Alan J. Stewart
- School of Medicine, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews KY16 9TF, Fife, UK; (S.J.H.); (J.S.M.); (D.W.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +44-(0)-1334-463546; Fax: +44-(0)-1334-463482
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