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Cassim A, Hettiarachchi D, Dissanayake VHW. Genetic determinants of syndactyly: perspectives on pathogenesis and diagnosis. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2022; 17:198. [PMID: 35549993 PMCID: PMC9097448 DOI: 10.1186/s13023-022-02339-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of the digits is a tightly regulated process. During embryogenesis, disturbance of genetic pathways in limb development could result in syndactyly; a common congenital malformation consisting of webbing in adjacent digits. Currently, there is a paucity of knowledge regarding the exact developmental mechanism leading to this condition. The best studied canonical interactions of Wingless‐type–Bone Morphogenic Protein–Fibroblast Growth Factor (WNT–BMP–FGF8), plays a role in the interdigital cell death (ICD) which is thought to be repressed in human syndactyly. Animal studies have displayed other pathways such as the Notch signaling, metalloprotease and non-canonical WNT-Planar cell polarity (PCP), to also contribute to failure of ICD, although less prominence has been given. The current diagnosis is based on a clinical evaluation followed by radiography when indicated, and surgical release of digits at 6 months of age is recommended. This review discusses the interactions repressing ICD in syndactyly, and characterizes genes associated with non-syndromic and selected syndromes involving syndactyly, according to the best studied canonical WNT-BMP-FGF interactions in humans. Additionally, the controversies regarding the current syndactyly classification and the effect of non-coding elements are evaluated, which to our knowledge has not been previously highlighted. The aim of the review is to better understand the developmental process leading to this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afraah Cassim
- Human Genetics Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, 25, Kynsey Road, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
| | - Dineshani Hettiarachchi
- Human Genetics Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, 25, Kynsey Road, Colombo, Sri Lanka
| | - Vajira H W Dissanayake
- Human Genetics Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Colombo, 25, Kynsey Road, Colombo, Sri Lanka
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Zaib T, Rashid H, Khan H, Zhou X, Sun P. Recent Advances in Syndactyly: Basis, Current Status and Future Perspectives. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:771. [PMID: 35627156 PMCID: PMC9141913 DOI: 10.3390/genes13050771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive summary of recent knowledge in syndactyly (SD) is important for understanding the genetic etiology of SD and disease management. Thus, this review article provides background information on SD, as well as insights into phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity, newly identified gene mutations in various SD types, the role of HOXD13 in limb deformities, and recently introduced modern surgical techniques for SD. This article also proposes a procedure for genetic analysis to obtain a clearer genotype-phenotype correlation for SD in the future. We briefly describe the classification of non-syndromic SD based on variable phenotypes to explain different phenotypic features and mutations in the various genes responsible for the pathogenesis of different types of SD. We describe how different types of mutation in HOXD13 cause various types of SD, and how a mutation in HOXD13 could affect its interaction with other genes, which may be one of the reasons behind the differential phenotypes and incomplete penetrance. Furthermore, we also discuss some recently introduced modern surgical techniques, such as free skin grafting, improved flap techniques, and dermal fat grafting in combination with the Z-method incision, which have been successfully practiced clinically with no post-operative complications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tahir Zaib
- Stem Cell Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
- (T.Z.)
- (X.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Immunopathology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
| | - Hibba Rashid
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Abasyn University, Peshawar 25000, Pakistan
| | - Hanif Khan
- Department of Pharmacology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
| | - Xiaoling Zhou
- Stem Cell Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
- (T.Z.)
- (X.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Immunopathology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
| | - Pingnan Sun
- Stem Cell Research Center, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
- (T.Z.)
- (X.Z.)
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Immunopathology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China
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Langlais T, Rougereau G, Marty-Diloy T, Bachy M, Barret H, Vialle R, Fitoussi F. Surgical treatment in child's congenital toe syndactyly: Risk factor of recurrence, complication and poor clinical outcomes. Foot Ankle Surg 2022; 28:107-113. [PMID: 33642221 DOI: 10.1016/j.fas.2021.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Surgical treatment of toe syndactyly remains controversial. The strong demand from parents for a cosmetic release is increasing in our societies. But is it worth it? The objective was to assess medium-long term outcomes and to identify the risk factors of recurrence, complication and poor clinical outcomes. METHODS Sixty-eight toe syndactylies (38 patients) undergoing surgery between 2008 and 2017 with a follow-up higher than two years were included consecutively and retrospectively. Four children (four syndactylies) were lost to follow-up and excluded. The mean age of the first surgery was 3.9 years old (0.8-16.7) and cohort mean follow-up was 6.9 years (2.8-11.2). In all patients, web release with a commissural dorsal flap was performed and associated a cutaneous resurfacing (spontaneous epithelialization, full-thickness skin graft taken from the popliteal crease, or a hyaluronic acid ester matrix). RESULTS Eighteen syndactylies (28.1%) in 14 patients recurred and one syndactyly required revision surgery. An age of surgery above two years was the only risk factor for recurrence found in univariate (OD = 0.27[0.08;0.85];p = 0.02) and multivariate studies (IC 95% = 0.05-0.68;p = 0.02). Seven complications (11.7%) in seven syndactylies (6 patients) were reported with six keloids (9.4%) and one scar retraction (1.6%). Each complication underwent an additional procedure. African ethnicity (N = 15) represents a risk factor (N = 4/15; OD = 0.12[0.009;0.97];p = 0.02) for keloids formation. Withey's average score is 4.9 (1-11), mean OxAFQ-C score was 52/60 (30-60), 67% would repeat the surgery and 69% felt satisfied at last follow-up. The simple syndactyly would appear less satisfied than complex or complicated (p = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS Surgical treatment of child's congenital syndactyly involves a risk of recurrence (28%) and potential complications (11,7%). Performed surgical procedure over two years old increase the risk of recurrence. African ethnicity is a risk factor in scarring complication. Only half of simple syndactylies are satisfied and prone to repeat the surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristan Langlais
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Armand-Trousseau Hospital, Sorbonne University, 26 Avenue du Dr-Arnold-Netter, 75012 Paris, France; Children's Hospital, Purpan, Toulouse University, Toulouse, France.
| | - Gregoire Rougereau
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Armand-Trousseau Hospital, Sorbonne University, 26 Avenue du Dr-Arnold-Netter, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Thibault Marty-Diloy
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Armand-Trousseau Hospital, Sorbonne University, 26 Avenue du Dr-Arnold-Netter, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Manon Bachy
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Armand-Trousseau Hospital, Sorbonne University, 26 Avenue du Dr-Arnold-Netter, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Hugo Barret
- Orthopedics Department, Purpan, Toulouse University, Toulouse, France
| | - Raphaël Vialle
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Armand-Trousseau Hospital, Sorbonne University, 26 Avenue du Dr-Arnold-Netter, 75012 Paris, France; The MAMUTH Hospital University Department for Innovative Therapies in Musculoskeletal Disease Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Franck Fitoussi
- Department of Pediatric Orthopedics, Armand-Trousseau Hospital, Sorbonne University, 26 Avenue du Dr-Arnold-Netter, 75012 Paris, France; The MAMUTH Hospital University Department for Innovative Therapies in Musculoskeletal Disease Sorbonne University, Paris, France
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Riaz HF, Malik S. Congenital limb defects in a married female population of the Rahim Yar Khan District in Pakistan. ASIAN BIOMED 2021; 15:137-144. [PMID: 37551370 PMCID: PMC10388742 DOI: 10.2478/abm-2021-0017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Background Congenital limb defects (CLD) have a range of phenotypes and can be a substantial cause of disability. The prevalence of CLD in the adult population of Pakistan is not well described. Objectives To investigate the prevalence of CLD and their associated factors in a married female population of the Rahim Yar Khan (RYK) District in Pakistan. Methods A cross-sectional population-based study was conducted in 4 tehsils of RYK District, and married women and girls from 22 different localities were enrolled by convenience sampling in public places and through door-to-door visits. Data regarding limb phenotype and demographic variables were obtained from participants. Results We enrolled 2,204 married women and girls. We found 11 participants with CLD suggesting a prevalence of 4.99/1,000 (proportion: 0.005; 95% confidence interval [CI] <0.001-0.01). Polydactyly was the most frequent (n = 5; prevalence: 2.27/1,000), followed by others in the following sequence: brachydactyly (n = 4; prevalence: 1.81/1,000), camptodactyly (n = 1; prevalence: 0.45/1,000), and oligodactyly (n = 1; prevalence: 0.45/1,000). The odds of occurrence of CLD were higher in individuals originating from Khanpur tehsil (odds ratio [OR] 2.05; 95% CI 0.37-11.27), speaking languages other than Punjabi and Saraiki (OR 2.35; 95% CI 0.24-22.80), belonging to Araien caste (OR 2.35; 95% CI: 0.24-22.80), of a nuclear family (OR 3.35; 95% CI 0.79-16.97), or having parental consanguinity (OR 1.87; 95% CI 0.49-7.06). Conclusion Preliminary estimate of CLD prevalence in the married female sample population in RYK appears high compared with estimates from birth defects registries in other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hafiza Fizzah Riaz
- Human Genetics Program, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad45320, Pakistan
| | - Sajid Malik
- Human Genetics Program, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad45320, Pakistan
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Cárdenas-León CG, Montoya-Contreras A, Mäemets-Allas K, Jaks V, Salazar-Olivo LA. A human preadipocyte cell strain with multipotent differentiation capability as an in vitro model for adipogenesis. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2020; 56:399-411. [PMID: 32535758 DOI: 10.1007/s11626-020-00468-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Murine 3T3 cell lines constitute a standard model system for in vitro study of mammalian adipogenesis although they do not faithfully reflect the biology of the human adipose cells. Several human adipose cell lines and strains have been used to recapitulate human adipogenesis in vitro, but to date there is no generally accepted in vitro model for human adipogenesis. We obtained a clonal strain of human subcutaneous adipose stromal cells, IPI-SA3-C4, and characterized its utility as an in vitro model for human subcutaneous adipogenesis. IPI-SA3-C4 cells showed a high proliferative potential for at least 30 serial passages, reached 70 cumulative population doublings and exhibited a population doubling time of 47 h and colony forming efficiency of 12% at the 57th cumulative population doublings. IPI-SA3-C4 cells remained diploid (46XY) even at the 56th cumulative population doublings and expressed the pluripotency markers POU5F1, NANOG, KLF4, and MYC even at 50th cumulative population doublings. Under specific culture conditions, IPI-SA3-C4 cells displayed cellular hallmarks and molecular markers of adipogenic, osteogenic, and chondrogenic lineages and showed adipogenic capacity even at the 66th cumulative population doublings. These characteristics show IPI-SA3-C4 cells as a promising potential model for human subcutaneous adipogenesis in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia G Cárdenas-León
- División de Biología Molecular, Instituto Potosino de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, Camino a la Presa San José 2055, 78216, San Luis Potosí, SLP, Mexico
| | - Angélica Montoya-Contreras
- División de Biología Molecular, Instituto Potosino de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, Camino a la Presa San José 2055, 78216, San Luis Potosí, SLP, Mexico
| | - Kristina Mäemets-Allas
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Viljar Jaks
- Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Luis A Salazar-Olivo
- División de Biología Molecular, Instituto Potosino de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, Camino a la Presa San José 2055, 78216, San Luis Potosí, SLP, Mexico.
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Type VI syndactyly with skeletal dysplasia: a new syndrome? Clin Dysmorphol 2018; 28:30-34. [PMID: 30138139 DOI: 10.1097/mcd.0000000000000238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Ahmed H, Akbari H, Emami A, Akbari MR. Genetic Overview of Syndactyly and Polydactyly. PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY-GLOBAL OPEN 2017; 5:e1549. [PMID: 29263957 PMCID: PMC5732663 DOI: 10.1097/gox.0000000000001549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Syndactyly and polydactyly-respectively characterized by fused and supernumerary digits-are among the most common congenital limb malformations, with syndactyly presenting at an estimated incidence of 1 in 2,000-3,000 live births and polydactyly at a frequency of 1 in approximately 700-1,000 live births. Despite their relatively regular manifestation in the clinic, the etiologies of syndactyly and polydactyly remain poorly understood because of their phenotypic and genetic diversity. Further, even though concrete knowledge of genotypic links has been established for some variants of syndactyly and polydactyly, there appears to be no single comprehensive published summary of all syndromic and nonsyndromic syndactyly and polydactyly presentations, and there is decidedly no resource that maps all syndromic and nonsyndromic syndactylies and polydactylies to their genetic bases. This gap in the literature problematizes comprehensive carrier screening and prenatal diagnosis and complicates novel diagnostic attempts. This review thus attempts to collect all that is known about the genetic bases of syndromic and nonsyndromic syndactylies and polydactylies, as well as to highlight the dactyly manifestations for which no genetic bases are as yet known. Then, having established a summation of existing and missing knowledge, this work briefly outlines the diagnostic techniques that a genetics-reinforced understanding of syndactyly and polydactyly could inform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humayun Ahmed
- From the Women’s College Research Institute, Women’s College Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Hazrat Fatemeh Hospital, Burn Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; and Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Hossein Akbari
- From the Women’s College Research Institute, Women’s College Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Hazrat Fatemeh Hospital, Burn Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; and Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Abdolhasan Emami
- From the Women’s College Research Institute, Women’s College Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Hazrat Fatemeh Hospital, Burn Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; and Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Mohammad R. Akbari
- From the Women’s College Research Institute, Women’s College Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Hazrat Fatemeh Hospital, Burn Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; and Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Deng H, Tan T, He Q, Lin Q, Yang Z, Zhu A, Guan L, Xiao J, Song Z, Guo Y. Identification of a missense HOXD13 mutation in a Chinese family with syndactyly type I-c using exome sequencing. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:473-477. [PMID: 28498426 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Syndactyly is one of the most common hereditary limb malformations, and is characterized by the fusion of specific fingers and/or toes. Syndactyly type I‑c is associated with bilateral cutaneous or bony webbing of the third and fourth fingers and occasionally of the third to fifth fingers, with normal feet. The aim of the present study was to identify the genetic basis of syndactyly type I‑c in four generations of a Chinese Han family by exome sequencing. Exome sequencing was conducted in the proband of the family, followed by direct sequencing of other family members of the same ancestry, as well as 100 ethnically‑matched, unrelated normal controls. A missense mutation, c.917G>A (p.R306Q), was identified in the homeobox D13 gene (HOXD13). Sanger sequencing verified the presence of this mutation in all of the affected family members. By contrast, this mutation was absent in the unaffected family members and the 100 ethnically‑matched normal controls. The results suggest that the c.917G>A (p.R306Q) mutation in the HOXD13 gene, may be responsible for syndactyly type I‑c in this family. Exome sequencing may therefore be a powerful tool for identifying mutations associated with syndactyly, which is a disorder with high genetic and clinical heterogeneity. The results provide novel insights into the etiology and diagnosis of syndactyly, and may influence genetic counseling and the clinical management of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Deng
- Center for Experimental Medicine, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Ting Tan
- Center for Experimental Medicine, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Quanyong He
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Qiongfen Lin
- BGI‑Shenzhen, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518083, P.R. China
| | - Zhijian Yang
- Center for Experimental Medicine, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Anding Zhu
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Liping Guan
- BGI‑Shenzhen, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518083, P.R. China
| | - Jingjing Xiao
- BGI‑Shenzhen, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518083, P.R. China
| | - Zhi Song
- Department of Neurology, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
| | - Yi Guo
- Center for Experimental Medicine, The Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, P.R. China
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Aizawa T, Togashi S, Haga Y, Nakayama Y, Sekido M, Kiyosawa T. Linear Separation of Toe Syndactyly With Preserved Subcutaneous Vascular Network Skin Grafts. Ann Plast Surg 2017; 78:311-314. [DOI: 10.1097/sap.0000000000000864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Deng H, Tan T. Advances in the Molecular Genetics of Non-syndromic Syndactyly. Curr Genomics 2015; 16:183-93. [PMID: 26069458 PMCID: PMC4460222 DOI: 10.2174/1389202916666150317233103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Syndactyly, webbing of adjacent digits with or without bony fusion, is one of the most common hereditary limb malformations. It occurs either as an isolated abnormality or as a component of more than 300 syndromic anomalies. There are currently nine types of phenotypically diverse nonsyndromic syndactyly. Non-syndromic syndactyly is usually inherited as an autosomal dominant trait, although the more severe presenting types and subtypes may show autosomal recessive or X-linked pattern of inheritance. The phenotype appears to be not only caused by a main gene, but also dependant on genetic background and subsequent signaling pathways involved in limb formation. So far, the principal genes identified to be involved in congenital syndactyly are mainly involved in the zone of polarizing activity and sonic hedgehog pathway. This review summarizes the recent progress made in the molecular genetics, including known genes and loci responsible for non-syndromic syndactyly, and the signaling pathways those genetic factors involved in, as well as clinical features and animal models. We hope our review will contribute to the understanding of underlying pathogenesis of this complicated disorder and have implication on genetic counseling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Deng
- Center for Experimental Medicine ; Department of Neurology, the Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ting Tan
- Center for Experimental Medicine
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Quinn G. Normal genetic variation of the human foot: Part 2: Population variance, epigenetic mechanisms, and developmental constraint in function. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 2012; 102:149-56. [PMID: 22461272 DOI: 10.7547/1020149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Congenital deformities of the foot have been reported to correlate with regulatory epigenetic mechanisms that are also responsible for the timing and sequencing of developmental growth of the lower limb. Developmental variance of normal morphologic features has also been shown to vary between populations despite the retention of human foot characteristics. The molecular evidence for genetically controlled expressions of common evolved physical features is highly suggestive of regulatory control mechanisms that act together with developmental constraints to homogenize the retained functional characteristics of the foot. Genetic variance in morphologic features and functional plasticity when linked to morphometric change during gait may prove influential in clarifying kinematic and kinetic relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greg Quinn
- Podiatric Surgery, Holywell Healthcare, Chesterfield, Derbyshire, England.
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12
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Malik S. Syndactyly: phenotypes, genetics and current classification. Eur J Hum Genet 2012; 20:817-24. [PMID: 22333904 PMCID: PMC3400728 DOI: 10.1038/ejhg.2012.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Revised: 01/03/2012] [Accepted: 01/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Syndactyly is one of the most common hereditary limb malformations depicting the fusion of certain fingers and/or toes. It may occur as an isolated entity or a component of more than 300 syndromic anomalies. Syndactylies exhibit great inter- and intra-familial clinical variability. Even within a subject, phenotype can be unilateral or bilateral and symmetrical or asymmetrical. At least nine non-syndromic syndactylies with additional sub-types have been characterized. Most of the syndactyly types are inherited as autosomal dominant but two autosomal recessive and an X-linked recessive entity have also been described. Whereas the underlying genes/mutations for types II-1, III, IV, V, and VII have been worked out, the etiology and molecular basis of the other syndactyly types remain unknown. In this communication, based on an overview of well-characterized isolated syndactylies, their cardinal phenotypes, inheritance patterns, and clinical and genetic heterogeneities, a 'current classification scheme' is presented. Despite considerable progress in the understanding of syndactyly at clinical and molecular levels, fundamental questions regarding the disturbed developmental mechanisms leading to fused digits, remain to be answered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sajid Malik
- Human Genetics Program, Department of Animal Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan.
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Jordan D, Hindocha S, Dhital M, Saleh M, Khan W. The epidemiology, genetics and future management of syndactyly. Open Orthop J 2012; 6:14-27. [PMID: 22448207 PMCID: PMC3308320 DOI: 10.2174/1874325001206010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Revised: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/29/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Syndactyly is a condition well documented in current literature due to it being the most common congenital hand defect, with a large aesthetic and functional significance.There are currently nine types of phenotypically diverse non-syndromic syndactyly, an increase since the original classification by Temtamy and McKusick(1978). Non-syndromic syndactyly is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait, although the more severe presenting types and sub types appear to have autosomal recessive and in some cases X-linked hereditary.Gene research has found that these phenotypes appear to not only be one gene specific, although having individual localised loci, but dependant on a wide range of genes and subsequent signalling pathways involved in limb formation. The principal genes so far defined to be involved in congenital syndactyly concern mainly the Zone of Polarizing Activity and Shh pathway.Research into the individual phenotypes appears to complicate classification as new genes are found both linked, and not linked, to each malformation. Consequently anatomical, phenotypical and genotypical classifications can be used, but are variable in significance, depending on the audience.Currently, management is surgical, with a technique unchanged for several decades, although future development will hopefully bring alternatives in both earlier diagnosis and gene manipulation for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Jordan
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Countess of Chester Hospital, Liverpool Road Chester, CH21UL, UK
| | - S Hindocha
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Countess of Chester Hospital, Liverpool Road Chester, CH21UL, UK
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Whiston Hospital, Warrington Road, L35 5DR, Liverpool, UK
| | - M Dhital
- University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - M Saleh
- Ain Shams University, Khalifa El-Maamon St, Abbasiya Sq, Cairo. 11566, Egypt
| | - W Khan
- University College London Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Sciences, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, Middlesex, HA7 4LP, UK
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Malik S, Afzal M, Gul S, Wahab A, Ahmad M. Autosomal dominant syndrome of camptodactyly, clinodactyly, syndactyly, and bifid toes. Am J Med Genet A 2010; 152A:2313-7. [DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.a.33552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Philip-Sarles N. Malformations congénitales de la main et génétique. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 27 Suppl 1:S7-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.main.2008.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Weisbecker V, Nilsson M. Integration, heterochrony, and adaptation in pedal digits of syndactylous marsupials. BMC Evol Biol 2008; 8:160. [PMID: 18501017 PMCID: PMC2430710 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-8-160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2008] [Accepted: 05/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Marsupial syndactyly is a curious morphology of the foot found in all species of diprotodontian and peramelemorph marsupials. It is traditionally defined as a condition in which digits II and III of the foot are bound by skin and are reduced. Past treatments of marsupial syndactyly have not considered the implications of this unique morphology for broader issues of digit development and evolution, and the ongoing debate regarding its phylogenetic meaning lacks a broad empirical basis. This study undertakes the first interdisciplinary characterisation of syndactyly, using variance/covariance matrix comparisons of morphometric measurements, locomotor indices, ossification sequences, and re-assessment of the largely anecdotal data on the phylogenetic distribution of tarsal/metatarsal articulations and "incipient syndactyly". Results Syndactylous digits have virtually identical variance/covariance matrices and display heterochronic ossification timing with respect to digits IV/V. However, this does not impact on overall locomotor adaptation patterns in the syndactylous foot as determined by analysis of locomotor predictor ratios. Reports of incipient syndactyly in some marsupial clades could not be confirmed; contrary to previous claims, syndactyly does not appear to impact on tarsal bone arrangement. Conclusion The results suggest that marsupial syndactyly originates from a constraint that is rooted in early digit ontogeny and results in evolution of the syndactylous digits as a highly integrated unit. Although convergent evolution appears likely, syndactyly in Diprotodontia and Peramelemorpha may occur through homologous developmental processes. We argue that the term "syndactyly" is a misnomer because the marsupial condition only superficially resembles its name-giving human soft-tissue syndactyly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Weisbecker
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, UNSW/Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
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