Identification of short 'eukaryotic' Okazaki fragments synthesized from a prokaryotic replication origin

DNA-binding mechanism and evolution of replication protein A

Replication Protein A (RPA) is a heterotrimeric single stranded DNA-binding protein with essential roles in DNA replication, recombination and repair. Little is known about the structure of RPA in Archaea, the third domain of life. By using an integrative structural, biochemical and biophysical approach, we extensively characterize RPA from Pyrococcus abyssi in the presence and absence of DNA. The obtained X-ray and cryo-EM structures reveal that the trimerization core and interactions promoting RPA clustering on ssDNA are shared between archaea and eukaryotes. However, we also identified a helical domain named AROD (Acidic Rpa1 OB-binding Domain), and showed that, in Archaea, RPA forms an unanticipated tetrameric supercomplex in the absence of DNA. The four RPA molecules clustered within the tetramer could efficiently coat and protect stretches of ssDNA created by the advancing replisome. Finally, our results provide insights into the evolution of this primordial replication factor in eukaryotes.

The combined DNA and RNA synthetic capabilities of archaeal DNA primase facilitate primer hand-off to the replicative DNA polymerase

Replicative DNA polymerases cannot initiate DNA synthesis de novo and rely on dedicated RNA polymerases, primases, to generate a short primer. This primer is then extended by the DNA polymerase. In diverse archaeal species, the primase has long been known to have the ability to synthesize both RNA and DNA. However, the relevance of these dual nucleic acid synthetic modes for productive primer synthesis has remained enigmatic. In the current work, we reveal that the ability of primase to polymerize DNA serves dual roles in promoting the hand-off of the primer to the replicative DNA polymerase holoenzyme. First, it creates a 5′-RNA-DNA-3′ hybrid primer which serves as an optimal substrate for elongation by the replicative DNA polymerase. Second, it promotes primer release by primase. Furthermore, modeling and experimental data indicate that primase incorporates a deoxyribonucleotide stochastically during elongation and that this switches the primase into a dedicated DNA synthetic mode polymerase.

DNA primases initiate a short primer before handing off to DNA polymerases to continue replication. Here the authors reveal a unique ability of archaeal primases to first synthesize RNA before stochastically incorporating a deoxyribonucleotide and further extending the primer as DNA.

DNA polymerase D temporarily connects primase to the CMG-like helicase before interacting with proliferating cell nuclear antigen

The eukaryotic replisome is comprised of three family-B DNA polymerases (Polα, δ and ϵ). Polα forms a stable complex with primase to synthesize short RNA-DNA primers, which are subsequently elongated by Polδ and Polϵ in concert with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). In some species of archaea, family-D DNA polymerase (PolD) is the only DNA polymerase essential for cell viability, raising the question of how it alone conducts the bulk of DNA synthesis. We used a hyperthermophilic archaeon, Thermococcus kodakarensis, to demonstrate that PolD connects primase to the archaeal replisome before interacting with PCNA. Whereas PolD stably connects primase to GINS, a component of CMG helicase, cryo-EM analysis indicated a highly flexible PolD–primase complex. A conserved hydrophobic motif at the C-terminus of the DP2 subunit of PolD, a PIP (PCNA-Interacting Peptide) motif, was critical for the interaction with primase. The dissociation of primase was induced by DNA-dependent binding of PCNA to PolD. Point mutations in the alternative PIP-motif of DP2 abrogated the molecular switching that converts the archaeal replicase from de novo to processive synthesis mode.

Archaeal DNA Replication

It is now well recognized that the information processing machineries of archaea are far more closely related to those of eukaryotes than to those of their prokaryotic cousins, the bacteria. Extensive studies have been performed on the structure and function of the archaeal DNA replication origins, the proteins that define them, and the macromolecular assemblies that drive DNA unwinding and nascent strand synthesis. The results from various archaeal organisms across the archaeal domain of life show surprising levels of diversity at many levels-ranging from cell cycle organization to chromosome ploidy to replication mode and nature of the replicative polymerases. In the following, we describe recent advances in the field, highlighting conserved features and lineage-specific innovations.

Origins of DNA replication

In all kingdoms of life, DNA is used to encode hereditary information. Propagation of the genetic material between generations requires timely and accurate duplication of DNA by semiconservative replication prior to cell division to ensure each daughter cell receives the full complement of chromosomes. DNA synthesis of daughter strands starts at discrete sites, termed replication origins, and proceeds in a bidirectional manner until all genomic DNA is replicated. Despite the fundamental nature of these events, organisms have evolved surprisingly divergent strategies that control replication onset. Here, we discuss commonalities and differences in replication origin organization and recognition in the three domains of life.

The interplay at the replisome mitigates the impact of oxidative damage on the genetic integrity of hyperthermophilic Archaea

8-oxodeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), a major oxidised base modification, has been investigated to study its impact on DNA replication in hyperthermophilic Archaea. Here we show that 8-oxodG is formed in the genome of growing cells, with elevated levels following exposure to oxidative stress. Functional characterisation of cell-free extracts and the DNA polymerisation enzymes, PolB, PolD, and the p41/p46 complex, alone or in the presence of accessory factors (PCNA and RPA) indicates that translesion synthesis occurs under replicative conditions. One of the major polymerisation effects was stalling, but each of the individual proteins could insert and extend past 8-oxodG with differing efficiencies. The introduction of RPA and PCNA influenced PolB and PolD in similar ways, yet provided a cumulative enhancement to the polymerisation performance of p41/p46. Overall, 8-oxodG translesion synthesis was seen to be potentially mutagenic leading to errors that are reminiscent of dA:8-oxodG base pairing.

Replication protein A complex in Thermococcus kodakarensis interacts with DNA polymerases and helps their effective strand synthesis

Replication protein A (RPA) is an essential component of DNA metabolic processes. RPA binds to single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and interacts with multiple DNA-binding proteins. In this study, we showed that two DNA polymerases, PolB and PolD, from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis interact directly with RPA in vitro. RPA was expected to play a role in resolving the secondary structure, which may stop the DNA synthesis reaction, in the template ssDNA. Our in vitro DNA synthesis assay showed that the pausing was resolved by RPA for both PolB and PolD. These results supported the fact that RPA interacts with DNA polymerases as a member of the replisome and is involved in the normal progression of DNA replication forks.

Snapshots of archaeal DNA replication and repair in living cells using super-resolution imaging

Using the haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii as a model, we developed nascent DNA labeling and the functional GFP-labeled single-stranded binding protein RPA2 as novel tools to gain new insight into DNA replication and repair in live haloarchaeal cells. Our quantitative fluorescence microscopy data revealed that RPA2 forms distinct replication structures that dynamically responded to replication stress and DNA damaging agents. The number of the RPA2 foci per cell followed a probabilistic Poisson distribution, implying hitherto unnoticed stochastic cell-to-cell variation in haloarchaeal DNA replication and repair processes. The size range of haloarchaeal replication structures is very similar to those observed earlier in eukaryotic cells. The improved lateral resolution of 3D-SIM fluorescence microscopy allowed proposing that inhibition of DNA synthesis results in localized replication foci clustering and facilitated observation of RPA2 complexes brought about by chemical agents creating DNA double-strand breaks. Altogether our in vivo observations are compatible with earlier in vitro studies on archaeal single-stranded DNA binding proteins. Our work thus underlines the great potential of live cell imaging for unraveling the dynamic nature of transient molecular interactions that underpin fundamental molecular processes in the Third domain of life.

Influence of Origin Recognition Complex Proteins on the Copy Numbers of Three Chromosomes in Haloferax volcanii

Replication initiation in archaea involves a protein named ORC, Cdc6, or ORC1/Cdc6, which is homologous to the eukaryotic origin recognition complex (ORC) proteins and to the eukaryotic Cdc6. Archaeal replication origins are comprised of origin repeat regions and adjacent orc genes. Some archaea contain a single replication origin and a single orc gene, while others have more than one of each. Haloferax volcanii is exceptional because it contains, in total, six replication origins on three chromosomes and 16 orc genes. Phylogenetic trees were constructed that showed that orc gene duplications occurred at very different times in evolution. To unravel the influence of the ORC proteins on chromosome copy number and cellular fitness, it was attempted to generate deletion mutants of all 16 genes. A total of 12 single-gene deletion mutants could be generated, and only three orc gene turned out to be essential. For one gene, the deletion analysis failed. Growth analyses revealed that no deletion mutant had a growth defect, but some had a slight growth advantage compared to the wild type. Quantification of the chromosome copy numbers in the deletion mutants showed that all 12 ORC proteins influenced the copy numbers of one, two, or all three chromosomes. The lack of an ORC led to an increase or decrease of chromosome copy number. Therefore, chromosome copy numbers in Hfxvolcanii are regulated by an intricate network of ORC proteins. This is in contrast to other archaea, in which ORC proteins typically bind specifically to the adjacent origin.IMPORTANCE The core origins of archaea are comprised of a repeat region and an adjacent gene for an origin recognition complex (ORC) protein, which is homologous to eukaryotic ORC proteins. Haloferax volcanii is exceptional because it contains six replication origins on three chromosomes and an additional 10 orc genes that are not adjacent to an origin. This unique ORC protein repertoire was used to unravel the importance of core origin orc genes and of origin-remote orc genes. Remarkably, all ORC proteins influenced the copy number of at least one chromosome. Some of them influenced those of all three chromosomes, showing that cross-regulation in trans exists in Hfx. volcanii Furthermore, the evolution of the archaeal ORC protein family was analyzed.

An archaeal primase functions as a nanoscale caliper to define primer length

The first phosphodiester linkage made during DNA replication is in the context of a short RNA primer synthesized by the dedicated RNA polymerase, primase. Primase, after synthesizing a defined short oligoribonucleotide, then transfers this primer to a DNA polymerase for extension. The mechanisms by which primer length is constrained remain elusive. Here, we dissect the basis of “counting” by an archaeal primase and propose a caliper-like mechanism to account for length determination.

The cellular replicative DNA polymerases cannot initiate DNA synthesis without a priming 3′ OH. During DNA replication, this is supplied in the context of a short RNA primer molecule synthesized by DNA primase. The primase of archaea and eukaryotes, despite having varying subunit compositions, share sequence and structural homology. Intriguingly, archaeal primase has been demonstrated to possess the ability to synthesize DNA de novo, a property shared with the eukaryotic PrimPol enzymes. The dual RNA and DNA synthetic capabilities of the archaeal DNA primase have led to the proposal that there may be a sequential hand-off between these synthetic modes of primase. In the current work, we dissect the functional interplay between DNA and RNA synthetic modes of primase. In addition, we determine the key determinants that govern primer length definition by the archaeal primase. Our results indicate a primer measuring system that functions akin to a caliper.

The GAN Exonuclease or the Flap Endonuclease Fen1 and RNase HII Are Necessary for Viability of Thermococcus kodakarensis

Many aspects of and factors required for DNA replication are conserved across all three domains of life, but there are some significant differences surrounding lagging-strand synthesis. In Archaea, a 5'-to-3' exonuclease, related to both bacterial RecJ and eukaryotic Cdc45, that associates with the replisome specifically through interactions with GINS was identified and designated GAN (for GINS-associated nuclease). Despite the presence of a well-characterized flap endonuclease (Fen1), it was hypothesized that GAN might participate in primer removal during Okazaki fragment maturation, and as a Cdc45 homologue, GAN might also be a structural component of an archaeal CMG (Cdc45, MCM, and GINS) replication complex. We demonstrate here that, individually, either Fen1 or GAN can be deleted, with no discernible effects on viability and growth. However, deletion of both Fen1 and GAN was not possible, consistent with both enzymes catalyzing the same step in primer removal from Okazaki fragments in vivo RNase HII has also been proposed to participate in primer processing during Okazaki fragment maturation. Strains with both Fen1 and RNase HII deleted grew well. GAN activity is therefore sufficient for viability in the absence of both RNase HII and Fen1, but it was not possible to construct a strain with both RNase HII and GAN deleted. Fen1 alone is therefore insufficient for viability in the absence of both RNase HII and GAN. The ability to delete GAN demonstrates that GAN is not required for the activation or stability of the archaeal MCM replicative helicase.IMPORTANCE The mechanisms used to remove primer sequences from Okazaki fragments during lagging-strand DNA replication differ in the biological domains. Bacteria use the exonuclease activity of DNA polymerase I, whereas eukaryotes and archaea encode a flap endonuclease (Fen1) that cleaves displaced primer sequences. RNase HII and the GINS-associated exonuclease GAN have also been hypothesized to assist in primer removal in Archaea Here we demonstrate that in Thermococcus kodakarensis, either Fen1 or GAN activity is sufficient for viability. Furthermore, GAN can support growth in the absence of both Fen1 and RNase HII, but Fen1 and RNase HII are required for viability in the absence of GAN.

Identification and characterization of a heterotrimeric archaeal DNA polymerase holoenzyme

Since their initial characterization over 30 years ago, it has been believed that the archaeal B-family DNA polymerases are single-subunit enzymes. This contrasts with the multi-subunit B-family replicative polymerases of eukaryotes. Here we reveal that the highly studied PolB1 from Sulfolobus solfataricus exists as a heterotrimeric complex in cell extracts. Two small subunits, PBP1 and PBP2, associate with distinct surfaces of the larger catalytic subunit and influence the enzymatic properties of the DNA polymerase. Thus, multi-subunit replicative DNA polymerase holoenzymes are present in all three domains of life. We reveal the architecture of the assembly by a combination of cross-linking coupled with mass spectrometry, X-ray crystallography and single-particle electron microscopy. The small subunits stabilize the holoenzyme assembly and the acidic tail of one small subunit mitigates the ability of the enzyme to perform strand-displacement synthesis, with important implications for lagging strand DNA synthesis.

The current model for B-family DNA polymerases in archaea is one of single-subunit enzymes in contrast to the multi-subunit complexes in eukaryotes. Here the authors show that PolB1 from Sulfolobus solfataricus exists as a heterotrimeric complex in cell extracts.

Initiation of Chromosomal Replication in Predatory Bacterium Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus

Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus is a small Gram-negative predatory bacterium that attacks other Gram-negative bacteria, including many animal, human, and plant pathogens. This bacterium exhibits a peculiar biphasic life cycle during which two different types of cells are produced: non-replicating highly motile cells (the free-living phase) and replicating cells (the intracellular-growth phase). The process of chromosomal replication in B. bacteriovorus must therefore be temporally and spatially regulated to ensure that it is coordinated with cell differentiation and cell cycle progression. Recently, B. bacteriovorus has received considerable research interest due to its intriguing life cycle and great potential as a prospective antimicrobial agent. Although, we know that chromosomal replication in bacteria is mainly regulated at the initiation step, no data exists about this process in B. bacteriovorus. We report the first characterization of key elements of initiation of chromosomal replication – DnaA protein and oriC region from the predatory bacterium, B. bacteriovorus. In vitro studies using different approaches demonstrate that the B. bacteriovorus oriC (BdoriC) is specifically bound and unwound by the DnaA protein. Sequence comparison of the DnaA-binding sites enabled us to propose a consensus sequence for the B. bacteriovorus DnaA box [5′-NN(A/T)TCCACA-3′]. Surprisingly, in vitro analysis revealed that BdoriC is also bound and unwound by the host DnaA proteins (relatively distantly related from B. bacteriovorus). We compared the architecture of the DnaA–oriC complexes (orisomes) in homologous (oriC and DnaA from B. bacteriovorus) and heterologous (BdoriC and DnaA from prey, Escherichia coli or Pseudomonas aeruginosa) systems. This work provides important new entry points toward improving our understanding of the initiation of chromosomal replication in this predatory bacterium.

The Eukaryotic Replication Machine

The cellular replicating machine, or "replisome," is composed of numerous different proteins. The core replication proteins in all cell types include a helicase, primase, DNA polymerases, sliding clamp, clamp loader, and single-strand binding (SSB) protein. The core eukaryotic replisome proteins evolved independently from those of bacteria and thus have distinct architectures and mechanisms of action. The core replisome proteins of the eukaryote include: an 11-subunit CMG helicase, DNA polymerase alpha-primase, leading strand DNA polymerase epsilon, lagging strand DNA polymerase delta, PCNA clamp, RFC clamp loader, and the RPA SSB protein. There are numerous other proteins that travel with eukaryotic replication forks, some of which are known to be involved in checkpoint regulation or nucleosome handling, but most have unknown functions and no bacterial analogue. Recent studies have revealed many structural and functional insights into replisome action. Also, the first structure of a replisome from any cell type has been elucidated for a eukaryote, consisting of 20 distinct proteins, with quite unexpected results. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge of the eukaryotic core replisome proteins, their structure, individual functions, and how they are organized at the replication fork as a machine.

Evolution of replication machines

The machines that decode and regulate genetic information require the translation, transcription and replication pathways essential to all living cells. Thus, it might be expected that all cells share the same basic machinery for these pathways that were inherited from the primordial ancestor cell from which they evolved. A clear example of this is found in the translation machinery that converts RNA sequence to protein. The translation process requires numerous structural and catalytic RNAs and proteins, the central factors of which are homologous in all three domains of life, bacteria, archaea and eukarya. Likewise, the central actor in transcription, RNA polymerase, shows homology among the catalytic subunits in bacteria, archaea and eukarya. In contrast, while some "gears" of the genome replication machinery are homologous in all domains of life, most components of the replication machine appear to be unrelated between bacteria and those of archaea and eukarya. This review will compare and contrast the central proteins of the "replisome" machines that duplicate DNA in bacteria, archaea and eukarya, with an eye to understanding the issues surrounding the evolution of the DNA replication apparatus.

Choosing a suitable method for the identification of replication origins in microbial genomes

As the replication of genomic DNA is arguably the most important task performed by a cell and given that it is controlled at the initiation stage, the events that occur at the replication origin play a central role in the cell cycle. Making sense of DNA replication origins is important for improving our capacity to study cellular processes and functions in the regulation of gene expression, genome integrity in much finer detail. Thus, clearly comprehending the positions and sequences of replication origins which are fundamental to chromosome organization and duplication is the first priority of all. In view of such important roles of replication origins, tremendous work has been aimed at identifying and testing the specificity of replication origins. A number of computational tools based on various skew types have been developed to predict replication origins. Using various in silico approaches such as Ori-Finder, and databases such as DoriC, researchers have predicted the locations of replication origins sites for thousands of bacterial chromosomes and archaeal genomes. Based on the predicted results, we should choose an effective method for identifying and confirming the interactions at origins of replication. Here we describe the main existing experimental methods that aimed to determine the replication origin regions and list some of the many the practical applications of these methods.

Archaeal DNA replication

DNA replication is essential for all life forms. Although the process is fundamentally conserved in the three domains of life, bioinformatic, biochemical, structural, and genetic studies have demonstrated that the process and the proteins involved in archaeal DNA replication are more similar to those in eukaryal DNA replication than in bacterial DNA replication, but have some archaeal-specific features. The archaeal replication system, however, is not monolithic, and there are some differences in the replication process between different species. In this review, the current knowledge of the mechanisms governing DNA replication in Archaea is summarized. The general features of the replication process as well as some of the differences are discussed.

The roles of family B and D DNA polymerases in Thermococcus species 9°N Okazaki fragment maturation

During replication, Okazaki fragment maturation is a fundamental process that joins discontinuously synthesized DNA fragments into a contiguous lagging strand. Efficient maturation prevents repeat sequence expansions, small duplications, and generation of double-stranded DNA breaks. To address the components required for the process in Thermococcus, Okazaki fragment maturation was reconstituted in vitro using purified proteins from Thermococcus species 9°N or cell extracts. A dual color fluorescence assay was developed to monitor reaction substrates, intermediates, and products. DNA polymerase D (polD) was proposed to function as the replicative polymerase in Thermococcus replicating both the leading and the lagging strands. It is shown here, however, that it stops before the previous Okazaki fragments, failing to rapidly process them. Instead, Family B DNA polymerase (polB) was observed to rapidly fill the gaps left by polD and displaces the downstream Okazaki fragment to create a flap structure. This flap structure was cleaved by flap endonuclease 1 (Fen1) and the resultant nick was ligated by DNA ligase to form a mature lagging strand. The similarities to both bacterial and eukaryotic systems and evolutionary implications of archaeal Okazaki fragment maturation are discussed.

Association between the dynamics of multiple replication origins and the evolution of multireplicon genome architecture in haloarchaea

Haloarchaeal genomes are generally composed of multiple replicons, and each replicon has a single or multiple replication origin(s). The comparative genomic analysis of replication origins from closely related species can be used to reveal the evolutionary mechanisms that account for the development of multiple origin systems. Multiple replication origins have been in silico and experimentally investigated in Haloarcula hispanica, which raise the possibility for comparisons of multiple replication origins in Haloarcula species. Thus, we performed a comparison of H. hispanica replication origins with those from five additional Haloarcula species. We demonstrated that the multiple replication origins in the chromosome were evolved independently multiple times from the oriC1-dependent ancestral chromosome. Particularly, the two origins oriC1 and oriC2 were conserved in location, and both of them were adjacent to an rRNA operon, suggestive of correlations in replication and expression of surrounding genes that may promote the conservation of these two origins. Some chromosomal variable regions were used as hotspots for origin evolution in which replication origins were continually being acquired, lost, and disrupted. Furthermore, we demonstrated that autonomously replicating sequence plasmids with H. hispanica minichromosomal replication origins were extremely unstable. Because both organization and replication origins of minichromosomes were not conserved, we proposed an association between the evolution of extrachromosomal replicons and origin variation. Taken together, we provided insights into the evolutionary history of multiple replication origins in Haloarcula species, and proposed a general model of association between the dynamics of multiple replication origins and the evolution of multireplicon genome architecture in haloarchaea.

Unique genome replication mechanism of the archaeal virus AFV1

The exceptional genomic content and genome organization of the Acidianus filamentous virus 1 (AFV1) that infects the hyperthermophilic archaeon Acidianus hospitalis suggest that this virus might exploit an unusual mechanism of genome replication. An analysis of replicative intermediates of the viral genome by two-dimensional (2D) agarose gel electrophoresis revealed that viral genome replication starts by the formation of a D-loop and proceeds via strand displacement replication. Characterization of replicative intermediates using dark-field electron microscopy, in combination with the 2D agarose gel electrophoresis data, suggests that recombination plays a key role in the termination of AFV1 genome replication through the formation of terminal loops. A terminal protein was found to be attached to the ends of the viral genome. The results allow us to postulate a model of genome replication that relies on recombination events for initiation and termination.

DNA replication origins in archaea

DNA replication initiation, which starts at specific chromosomal site (known as replication origins), is the key regulatory stage of chromosome replication. Archaea, the third domain of life, use a single or multiple origin(s) to initiate replication of their circular chromosomes. The basic structure of replication origins is conserved among archaea, typically including an AT-rich unwinding region flanked by several conserved repeats (origin recognition box, ORB) that are located adjacent to a replication initiator gene. Both the ORB sequence and the adjacent initiator gene are considerably diverse among different replication origins, while in silico and genetic analyses have indicated the specificity between the initiator genes and their cognate origins. These replicator–initiator pairings are reminiscent of the oriC-dnaA system in bacteria, and a model for the negative regulation of origin activity by a downstream cluster of ORB elements has been recently proposed in haloarchaea. Moreover, comparative genomic analyses have revealed that the mosaics of replicator-initiator pairings in archaeal chromosomes originated from the integration of extrachromosomal elements. This review summarizes the research progress in understanding of archaeal replication origins with particular focus on the utilization, control and evolution of multiple replication origins in haloarchaea.

Diversity of the DNA replication system in the Archaea domain

The precise and timely duplication of the genome is essential for cellular life. It is achieved by DNA replication, a complex process that is conserved among the three domains of life. Even though the cellular structure of archaea closely resembles that of bacteria, the information processing machinery of archaea is evolutionarily more closely related to the eukaryotic system, especially for the proteins involved in the DNA replication process. While the general DNA replication mechanism is conserved among the different domains of life, modifications in functionality and in some of the specialized replication proteins are observed. Indeed, Archaea possess specific features unique to this domain. Moreover, even though the general pattern of the replicative system is the same in all archaea, a great deal of variation exists between specific groups.

Replication-fork dynamics

The proliferation of all organisms depends on the coordination of enzymatic events within large multiprotein replisomes that duplicate chromosomes. Whereas the structure and function of many core replisome components have been clarified, the timing and order of molecular events during replication remains obscure. To better understand the replication mechanism, new methods must be developed that allow for the observation and characterization of short-lived states and dynamic events at single replication forks. Over the last decade, great progress has been made toward this goal with the development of novel DNA nanomanipulation and fluorescence imaging techniques allowing for the direct observation of replication-fork dynamics both reconstituted in vitro and in live cells. This article reviews these new single-molecule approaches and the revised understanding of replisome operation that has emerged.

Multiple replication origins with diverse control mechanisms in Haloarcula hispanica

The use of multiple replication origins in archaea is not well understood. In particular, little is known about their specific control mechanisms. Here, we investigated the active replication origins in the three replicons of a halophilic archaeon, Haloarcula hispanica, by extensive gene deletion, DNA mutation and genome-wide marker frequency analyses. We revealed that individual origins are specifically dependent on their co-located cdc6 genes, and a single active origin/cdc6 pairing is essential and sufficient for each replicon. Notably, we demonstrated that the activities of oriC1 and oriC2, the two origins on the main chromosome, are differently controlled. A G-rich inverted repeat located in the internal region between the two inverted origin recognition boxes (ORBs) plays as an enhancer for oriC1, whereas the replication initiation at oriC2 is negatively regulated by an ORB-rich region located downstream of oriC2-cdc6E, likely via Cdc6E-titrating. The oriC2 placed on a plasmid is incompatible with the wild-type (but not the ΔoriC2) host strain, further indicating that strict control of the oriC2 activity is important for the cell. This is the first report revealing diverse control mechanisms of origins in haloarchaea, which has provided novel insights into the use and coordination of multiple replication origins in the domain of Archaea.

An extended network of genomic maintenance in the archaeon Pyrococcus abyssi highlights unexpected associations between eucaryotic homologs

In Archaea, the proteins involved in the genetic information processing pathways, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation, share strong similarities with those of eukaryotes. Characterizations of components of the eukaryotic-type replication machinery complex provided many interesting insights into DNA replication in both domains. In contrast, DNA repair processes of hyperthermophilic archaea are less well understood and very little is known about the intertwining between DNA synthesis, repair and recombination pathways. The development of genetic system in hyperthermophilic archaea is still at a modest stage hampering the use of complementary approaches of reverse genetics and biochemistry to elucidate the function of new candidate DNA repair gene. To gain insights into genomic maintenance processes in hyperthermophilic archaea, a protein-interaction network centred on informational processes of Pyrococcus abyssi was generated by affinity purification coupled with mass spectrometry. The network consists of 132 interactions linking 87 proteins. These interactions give insights into the connections of DNA replication with recombination and repair, leading to the discovery of new archaeal components and of associations between eucaryotic homologs. Although this approach did not allow us to clearly delineate new DNA pathways, it provided numerous clues towards the function of new molecular complexes with the potential to better understand genomic maintenance processes in hyperthermophilic archaea. Among others, we found new potential partners of the replication clamp and demonstrated that the single strand DNA binding protein, Replication Protein A, enhances the transcription rate, in vitro, of RNA polymerase. This interaction map provides a valuable tool to explore new aspects of genome integrity in Archaea and also potentially in Eucaryotes.

Thermococcus kodakarensis DNA replication

DNA replication plays an essential role in all life forms. Research on archaeal DNA replication began approximately 20 years ago. Progress was hindered, however, by the lack of genetic tools to supplement the biochemical and structural studies. This has changed, however, and genetic approaches are now available for several archaeal species. One of these organisms is the thermophilic euryarchaeon Thermococcus kodakarensis. In the present paper, the recent developments in the biochemical, structural and genetic studies on the replication machinery of T. kodakarensis are summarized.

The cell cycle of archaea

Growth and proliferation of all cell types require intricate regulation and coordination of chromosome replication, genome segregation, cell division and the systems that determine cell shape. Recent findings have provided insight into the cell cycle of archaea, including the multiple-origin mode of DNA replication, the initial characterization of a genome segregation machinery and the discovery of a novel cell division system. The first archaeal cytoskeletal protein, crenactin, was also recently described and shown to function in cell shape determination. Here, we outline the current understanding of the archaeal cell cycle and cytoskeleton, with an emphasis on species in the genus Sulfolobus, and consider the major outstanding questions in the field.

Sulfolobus chromatin proteins modulate strand displacement by DNA polymerase B1

Strand displacement by a DNA polymerase serves a key role in Okazaki fragment maturation, which involves displacement of the RNA primer of the preexisting Okazaki fragment into a flap structure, and subsequent flap removal and fragment ligation. We investigated the role of Sulfolobus chromatin proteins Sso7d and Cren7 in strand displacement by DNA polymerase B1 (PolB1) from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus. PolB1 showed a robust strand displacement activity and was capable of synthesizing thousands of nucleotides on a DNA-primed 72-nt single-stranded circular DNA template. This activity was inhibited by both Sso7d and Cren7, which limited the flap length to 3–4 nt at saturating concentrations. However, neither protein inhibited RNA displacement on an RNA-primed single-stranded DNA minicircle by PolB1. Strand displacement remained sensitive to modulation by the chromatin proteins when PolB1 was in association with proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Inhibition of DNA instead of RNA strand displacement by the chromatin proteins is consistent with the finding that double-stranded DNA was more efficiently bound and stabilized than an RNA:DNA duplex by these proteins. Our results suggest that Sulfolobus chromatin proteins modulate strand displacement by PolB1, permitting efficient removal of the RNA primer while inhibiting excessive displacement of the newly synthesized DNA strand during Okazaki fragment maturation.

Novel inhibition of archaeal family-D DNA polymerase by uracil

Archaeal family-D DNA polymerase is inhibited by the presence of uracil in DNA template strands. When the enzyme encounters uracil, following three parameters change: DNA binding increases roughly 2-fold, the rate of polymerization slows by a factor of ≈ 5 and 3'-5' proof-reading exonuclease activity is stimulated by a factor of ≈ 2. Together these changes result in a significant decrease in polymerization activity and a reduction in net DNA synthesis. Pol D appears to interact with template strand uracil irrespective of its distance ahead of the replication fork. Polymerization does not stop at a defined location relative to uracil, rather a general decrease in DNA synthesis is observed. 'Trans' inhibition, the slowing of Pol D by uracil on a DNA strand not being replicated is also observed. It is proposed that Pol D is able to interact with uracil by looping out the single-stranded template, allowing simultaneous contact of both the base and the primer-template junction to give a polymerase-DNA complex with diminished extension ability.

In vitro reconstitution of RNA primer removal in Archaea reveals the existence of two pathways

Using model DNA substrates and purified recombinant proteins from Pyrococcus abyssi, I have reconstituted the enzymatic reactions involved in RNA primer elimination in vitro. In my dual-labelled system, polymerase D performed efficient strand displacement DNA synthesis, generating 5'-RNA flaps which were subsequently released by Fen1, before ligation by Lig1. In this pathway, the initial cleavage event by RNase HII facilitated RNA primer removal of Okazaki fragments. In addition, I have shown that polymerase B was able to displace downstream DNA strands with a single ribonucleotide at the 5'-end, a product resulting from a single cut in the RNA initiator by RNase HII. After RNA elimination, the combined activities of strand displacement DNA synthesis by polymerase B and flap cleavage by Fen1 provided a nicked substrate for ligation by Lig1. The unique specificities of Okazaki fragment maturation enzymes and replicative DNA polymerases strongly support the existence of two pathways in the resolution of RNA fragments.

DoriC 5.0: an updated database of oriC regions in both bacterial and archaeal genomes

Replication of chromosomes is one of the central events in the cell cycle. Chromosome replication begins at specific sites, called origins of replication (oriCs), for all three domains of life. However, the origins of replication still remain unknown in a considerably large number of bacterial and archaeal genomes completely sequenced so far. The availability of increasing complete bacterial and archaeal genomes has created challenges and opportunities for identification of their oriCs in silico, as well as in vivo. Based on the Z-curve theory, we have developed a web-based system Ori-Finder to predict oriCs in bacterial genomes with high accuracy and reliability by taking advantage of comparative genomics, and the predicted oriC regions have been organized into an online database DoriC, which is publicly available at http://tubic.tju.edu.cn/doric/ since 2007. Five years after we constructed DoriC, the database has significant advances over the number of bacterial genomes, increasing about 4-fold. Additionally, oriC regions in archaeal genomes identified by in vivo experiments, as well as in silico analyses, have also been added to the database. Consequently, the latest release of DoriC contains oriCs for >1500 bacterial genomes and 81 archaeal genomes, respectively.

Diversity and evolution of multiple orc/cdc6-adjacent replication origins in haloarchaea

Background

While multiple replication origins have been observed in archaea, considerably less is known about their evolutionary processes. Here, we performed a comparative analysis of the predicted (proved in part) orc/cdc6-associated replication origins in 15 completely sequenced haloarchaeal genomes to investigate the diversity and evolution of replication origins in halophilic Archaea.

Results

Multiple orc/cdc6-associated replication origins were predicted in all of the analyzed haloarchaeal genomes following the identification of putative ORBs (origin recognition boxes) that are associated with orc/cdc6 genes. Five of these predicted replication origins in Haloarcula hispanica were experimentally confirmed via autonomous replication activities. Strikingly, several predicted replication origins in H. hispanica and Haloarcula marismortui are located in the distinct regions of their highly homologous chromosomes, suggesting that these replication origins might have been introduced as parts of new genomic content. A comparison of the origin-associated Orc/Cdc6 homologs and the corresponding predicted ORB elements revealed that the replication origins in a given haloarchaeon are quite diverse, while different haloarchaea can share a few conserved origins. Phylogenetic and genomic context analyses suggested that there is an original replication origin (oriC1) that was inherited from the ancestor of archaea, and several other origins were likely evolved and/or translocated within the haloarchaeal species.

Conclusion

This study provides detailed information about the diversity of multiple orc/cdc6-associated replication origins in haloarchaeal genomes, and provides novel insight into the evolution of multiple replication origins in Archaea.

Helicobacter pylori oriC--the first bipartite origin of chromosome replication in Gram-negative bacteria

Binding of the DnaA protein to oriC leads to DNA melting within the DNA unwinding element (DUE) and initiates replication of the bacterial chromosome. Helicobacter pylori oriC was previously identified as a region localized upstream of dnaA and containing a cluster of DnaA boxes bound by DnaA protein with a high affinity. However, no unwinding within the oriC sequence has been detected. Comprehensive in silico analysis presented in this work allowed us to identify an additional region (oriC2), separated from the original one (oriC1) by the dnaA gene. DnaA specifically binds both regions, but DnaA-dependent DNA unwinding occurs only within oriC2. Surprisingly, oriC2 is bound exclusively as supercoiled DNA, which directly shows the importance of the DNA topology in DnaA-oriC interactions, similarly as previously presented only for initiator-origin interactions in Archaea and some Eukaryota. We conclude that H. pylori oriC exhibits bipartite structure, being the first such origin discovered in a Gram-negative bacterium. The H. pylori mode of initiator-oriC interactions, with the loop formation between the subcomplexes of the discontinuous origin, resembles those discovered in Bacillus subtilis chromosome and in many plasmids, which might suggest a similar way of controlling initiation of replication.

Rapid progress of DNA replication studies in Archaea, the third domain of life

Archaea, the third domain of life, are interesting organisms to study from the aspects of molecular and evolutionary biology. Archaeal cells have a unicellular ultrastructure without a nucleus, resembling bacterial cells, but the proteins involved in genetic information processing pathways, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation, share strong similarities with those of Eukaryota. Therefore, archaea provide useful model systems to understand the more complex mechanisms of genetic information processing in eukaryotic cells. Moreover, the hyperthermophilic archaea provide very stable proteins, which are especially useful for the isolation of replisomal multicomplexes, to analyze their structures and functions. This review focuses on the history, current status, and future directions of archaeal DNA replication studies.

Formation of dAMP-glycerol and dAMP-Tris derivatives by Thermococcus kodakaraensis DNA primase

In the presence of dATP, glycerol, and Tris buffer, the DNA primase isolated from Thermococcus kodakaraensis catalyzed the formation of dAMP and two products that were identified as dAMP-glycerol and dAMP-Tris. These products were formed by the T. kodakaraensis p41 catalytic subunit alone and the T. kodakaraensis p41-p46 complex in the absence of a DNA template. They were not formed with preparations containing the catalytically inactive p41 subunit. Similar glycerol and Tris derivatives as well as dNMPs were also formed with dGTP, dCTP, or dTTP. The mechanism contributing to the formation of these products and its implications in the initiation reaction catalyzed by the T. kodakaraensis primase are discussed.

Kinetics and fidelity of polymerization by DNA polymerase III from Sulfolobus solfataricus

We have biochemically and kinetically characterized the polymerase and exonuclease activities of the third B-family polymerase (Dpo3) from the hyperthermophilic Crenarchaeon, Sulfolobus solfataricus (Sso). We have established through mutagenesis that despite incomplete sequence conservation, the polymerase and exonuclease active sites are functionally conserved in Dpo3. Using pre-steady-state kinetics, we can measure the fidelity of nucleotide incorporation by Dpo3 from the polymerase active site alone to be 10(3)-10(4) at 37 °C. The functional exonuclease proofreading active site will increase fidelity by at least 10(2), making Dpo3 comparable to other DNA polymerases in this family. Additionally, Dpo3's exonuclease activity is modulated by temperature, where a loss of promiscuous degradation activity can be attributed to a reorganization of the exonuclease domain when it is bound to primer-template DNA at high temperatures. Unexpectedly, the DNA binding affinity is weak compared with those of other DNA polymerases of this family. A comparison of the fidelity, polymerization kinetics, and associated functional exonuclease domain with those previously reported for other Sso polymerases (Dpo1 and Dpo4) illustrates that Dpo3 is a potential player in the proper maintenance of the archaeal genome.

Characterization of DNA primase complex isolated from the archaeon, Thermococcus kodakaraensis

In most organisms, DNA replication is initiated by DNA primases, which synthesize primers that are elongated by DNA polymerases. In this study, we describe the isolation and biochemical characterization of the DNA primase complex and its subunits from the archaeon Thermococcus kodakaraensis. The T. kodakaraensis DNA primase complex is a heterodimer containing stoichiometric levels of the p41 and p46 subunits. The catalytic activity of the complex resides within the p41 subunit. We show that the complex supports both DNA and RNA synthesis, whereas the p41 subunit alone marginally produces RNA and synthesizes DNA chains that are longer than those formed by the complex. We report that the T. kodakaraensis primase complex preferentially interacts with dNTP rather than ribonucleoside triphosphates and initiates RNA as well as DNA chains de novo. The latter findings indicate that the archaeal primase complex, in contrast to the eukaryote homolog, can initiate DNA chain synthesis in the absence of ribonucleoside triphosphates. DNA primers formed by the archaeal complex can be elongated extensively by the T. kodakaraensis DNA polymerase (Pol) B, whereas DNA primers formed by the p41 catalytic subunit alone were not. Supplementation of reactions containing the p41 subunit with the p46 subunit leads to PolB-catalyzed DNA synthesis. We also established a rolling circle reaction using a primed 200-nucleotide circle as the substrate. In the presence of the T. kodakaraensis minichromosome maintenance (MCM) 3' → 5' DNA helicase, PolB, replication factor C, and proliferating cell nuclear antigen, long leading strands (>10 kb) are produced. Supplementation of such reactions with the DNA primase complex supported lagging strand formation as well.

Coordination of multiple enzyme activities by a single PCNA in archaeal Okazaki fragment maturation

In vitro reconstitution of Okazaki fragment processing shows that DNA polymerase, flap endonuclease and DNA ligase need to simultaneously bind to the same PCNA-sliding clamp molecule during DNA lagging strand replication.

Chromosomal DNA replication requires one daughter strand—the lagging strand—to be synthesised as a series of discontinuous, RNA-primed Okazaki fragments, which must subsequently be matured into a single covalent DNA strand. Here, we describe the reconstitution of Okazaki fragment maturation in vitro using proteins derived from the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus. Six proteins are necessary and sufficient for coupled DNA synthesis, RNA primer removal and DNA ligation. PolB1, Fen1 and Lig1 provide the required catalytic activities, with coordination of their activities dependent upon the DNA sliding clamp, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). S. solfataricus PCNA is a heterotrimer, with each subunit having a distinct specificity for binding PolB1, Fen1 or Lig1. Our data demonstrate that the most efficient coupling of activities occurs when a single PCNA ring organises PolB1, Fen1 and Lig1 into a complex.

Structure-specific nuclease activities of Pyrococcus abyssi RNase HII

Faithful DNA replication involves the removal of RNA residues from genomic DNA prior to the ligation of nascent DNA fragments in all living organisms. Because the physiological roles of archaeal type 2 RNase H are not fully understood, the substrate structure requirements for the detection of RNase H activity need further clarification. Biochemical characterization of a single RNase H detected within the genome of Pyrococcus abyssi showed that this type 2 RNase H is an Mg- and alkaline pH-dependent enzyme. PabRNase HII showed RNase activity and acted as a specific endonuclease on RNA-DNA/DNA duplexes. This specific cleavage, 1 nucleotide upstream of the RNA-DNA junction, occurred on a substrate in which RNA initiators had to be fully annealed to the cDNA template. On the other hand, a 5' RNA flap Okazaki fragment intermediate impaired PabRNase HII endonuclease activity. Furthermore, introduction of mismatches into the RNA portion near the RNA-DNA junction decreased both the specificity and the efficiency of cleavage by PabRNase HII. Additionally, PabRNase HII could cleave a single ribonucleotide embedded in a double-stranded DNA. Our data revealed PabRNase HII as a dual-function enzyme likely required for the completion of DNA replication and DNA repair.

Cdc6/Orc1 from Pyrococcus furiosus may act as the origin recognition protein and Mcm helicase recruiter

Archaea have one or more Cdc6/Orc1 proteins, which share sequence similarities with eukaryotic Cdc6 and Orc1. These proteins are involved in the initiation process of DNA replication, although their specific function has not been elucidated, except for origin recognition and binding. We showed that the Cdc6/Orc1 protein from the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus specifically binds to the oriC region in the whole genome. However, it remains unclear how this initiator protein specifically recognizes the oriC region and how the Mcm helicase is recruited to oriC. In the current study, we characterized the biochemical properties of Cdc6/Orc1 in P. furiosus. The ATPase activity of the Cdc6/Orc1 protein was completely suppressed by binding to DNA containing the origin recognition box (ORB). Limited proteolysis and DNase I-footprint experiments suggested that the Cdc6/Orc1 protein changes its conformation on the ORB sequence in the presence of ATP. This conformational change may have an unknown, important function in the initiation process. Results from an in vitro recruiting assay indicated that Mcm is recruited onto the oriC region in a Cdc6/Orc1-dependent, but not ATP-dependent, manner. However, some other function is required for the functional loading of this helicase to start the unwinding of the replication fork DNA.

Localized melting of duplex DNA by Cdc6/Orc1 at the DNA replication origin in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus

The initiation step is a key process to regulate the frequency of DNA replication. Although recent studies in Archaea defined the origin of DNA replication (oriC) and the Cdc6/Orc1 homolog as an origin recognition protein, the location and mechanism of duplex opening have remained unclear. We have found that Cdc6/Orc1 binds to oriC and unwinds duplex DNA in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus, by means of a P1 endonuclease assay. A primer extension analysis further revealed that this localized unwinding occurs in the oriC region at a specific site, which is 12-bp long and rich in adenine and thymine. This site is different from the predicted duplex unwinding element (DUE) that we reported previously. We also discovered that Cdc6/Orc1 induces topological changes in supercoiled oriC DNA, and that this process is dependent on the AAA+ domain. These results indicate that topological alterations of oriC DNA by Cdc6/Orc1 introduce a single-stranded region at the 12-mer site, that could possibly serve as an entry point for Mcm helicase.

Replication initiation point mapping: approach and implications

Duplication of eukaryotic chromosomes begins from multiple sites called origins of replication, with DNA synthesis proceeding bidirectionally away from the origin. There is little detailed information available pertaining to whether replication initiates at specific sites or anywhere within a given origin. The development of replication initiation point (RIP) mapping has made it possible to map start sites for DNA synthesis at the nucleotide level. The key step in RIP mapping is the purification of nascent DNA, which is initiated by small RNA primers. For the removal of broken DNA fragments, we utilize lambda-exonuclease, which digests DNA, but leaves nascent strands intact as long as they have the RNA primer still attached. RIP mapping is a sensitive technique and has been successfully applied to single copy loci in both budding and fission yeast, archaebacteria, and human cells. Studies in yeast have shown that the binding site for the initiator, the origin recognition complex (ORC), lies immediately adjacent to the replication start point, which suggests that ORC directs the initiation machinery to a distinct site. Here, we present a detailed step-by-step protocol for RIP mapping of replication origins in budding yeast.

Multiple replication origins of Halobacterium sp. strain NRC-1: properties of the conserved orc7-dependent oriC1

The eukaryote-like DNA replication system of the model haloarchaeon Halobacterium NRC-1 is encoded within a circular chromosome and two large megaplasmids or minichromosomes, pNRC100 and pNRC200. We previously showed by genetic analysis that 2 (orc2 and orc10) of the 10 genes coding for Orc-Cdc6 replication initiator proteins were essential, while a third (orc7), located near a highly conserved autonomously replicating sequence, oriC1, was nonessential for cell viability. Here we used whole-genome marker frequency analysis (MFA) and found multiple peaks, indicative of multiple replication origins. The largest chromosomal peaks were located proximal to orc7 (oriC1) and orc10 (oriC2), and the largest peaks on the extrachromosomal elements were near orc9 (oriP1) in both pNRC100 and -200 and near orc4 (oriP2) in pNRC200. MFA of deletion strains containing different combinations of chromosomal orc genes showed that replication initiation at oriC1 requires orc7 but not orc6 and orc8. The initiation sites at oriC1 were determined by replication initiation point analysis and found to map divergently within and near an AT-rich element flanked by likely Orc binding sites. The oriC1 region, Orc binding sites, and orc7 gene orthologs were conserved in all sequenced haloarchaea. Serial deletion of orc genes resulted in the construction of a minimal strain containing not only orc2 and orc10 but also orc9. Our results suggest that replication in this model system is intriguing and more complex than previously thought. We discuss these results from the perspective of the replication strategy and evolution of haloarchaeal genomes.

ORC proteins: marking the start

The DNA replication apparatus of archaea is more closely related to that of eukaryotes than eubacteria. Furthermore, recent work has shown that archaea, like eukaryotes, have multiple replication origins. Biochemical data are starting to reveal how archaeal origin binding proteins recognise and remodel origin DNA sequences. Crystal structures of archaeal replication origin binding proteins complexed with their DNA targets revealed details of how they interact with origins and showed that they introduce significant deformations of the DNA. Although these recent advances provide insight about the initial interactions of proteins at archaeal replication origins, the molecular mechanisms of origin assembly and firing still remain elusive.

How is the archaeal MCM helicase assembled at the origin? Possible mechanisms

In order for any organism to replicate its DNA, a helicase must unwind the duplex DNA in front of the replication fork. In archaea, the replicative helicase is the MCM (minichromosome maintenance) helicase. Although much is known about the biochemical properties of the MCM helicase, the mechanism of assembly at the origin of replication is unknown. In the present paper, several possible mechanisms for the loading process are described.