Conformation-controlled binding kinetics of antibodies

Structural properties of immune complexes formed by viral antigens and specific antibodies shape the inflammatory response of macrophages

Data on the course of viral infections revealed severe inflammation as a consequence of antiviral immune response. Despite extensive research, there are insufficient data on the role of innate immune cells in promoting inflammation mediated by immune complexes (IC) of viral antigens and their specific antibodies. Recently, we demonstrated that antigens of human polyomaviruses (PyVs) induce an inflammatory response in macrophages. Here, we investigated macrophage activation by IC. We used primary murine macrophages as a cell model, virus-like particles (VLPs) of PyV capsid protein as antigens, and a collection of murine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) of IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b subclasses. The inflammatory response was investigated by analysing inflammatory chemokines and activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. We observed a diverse pattern of chemokine secretion in macrophages treated with different IC compared to VLPs alone. To link IC properties with cell activation status, we characterised the IC by advanced optical and acoustic techniques. Ellipsometry provided precise real-time kinetics of mAb-antigen interactions, while quartz crystal microbalance measurements showed changes in conformation and viscoelastic properties during IC formation. These results revealed differences in mAb-antigen interaction and mAb binding parameters of the investigated IC. We found that IC-mediated cell activation depends more on IC characteristics, including mAb affinity, than on mAb affinity for the activating Fc receptor. IC formed by the highest affinity mAb showed a significant enhancement of inflammasome activation. This may explain the hyperinflammation related to viral infection and vaccination. Our findings demonstrate that IC promote the viral antigen-induced inflammatory response depending on antibody properties.

Diffusion-Controlled Reactions: An Overview

We review the milestones in the century-long development of the theory of diffusion-controlled reactions. Starting from the seminal work by von Smoluchowski, who recognized the importance of diffusion in chemical reactions, we discuss perfect and imperfect surface reactions, their microscopic origins, and the underlying mathematical framework. Single-molecule reaction schemes, anomalous bulk diffusions, reversible binding/unbinding kinetics, and many other extensions are presented. An alternative encounter-based approach to diffusion-controlled reactions is introduced, with emphasis on its advantages and potential applications. Some open problems and future perspectives are outlined.

Perspectives on Ligand/Protein Binding Kinetics Simulations: Force Fields, Machine Learning, Sampling, and User-Friendliness

Computational techniques applied to drug discovery have gained considerable popularity for their ability to filter potentially active drugs from inactive ones, reducing the time scale and costs of preclinical investigations. The main focus of these studies has historically been the search for compounds endowed with high affinity for a specific molecular target to ensure the formation of stable and long-lasting complexes. Recent evidence has also correlated the in vivo drug efficacy with its binding kinetics, thus opening new fascinating scenarios for ligand/protein binding kinetic simulations in drug discovery. The present article examines the state of the art in the field, providing a brief summary of the most popular and advanced ligand/protein binding kinetics techniques and evaluating their current limitations and the potential solutions to reach more accurate kinetic models. Particular emphasis is put on the need for a paradigm change in the present methodologies toward ligand and protein parametrization, the force field problem, characterization of the transition states, the sampling issue, and algorithms' performance, user-friendliness, and data openness.

Minimal Coarse-Grained Model for Immunoglobulin G: Diffusion and Binding under Crowding

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is the most common type of antibody found in blood and extracellular fluids and plays an essential role in our immune response. However, studies of the dynamics and reaction kinetics of IgG-antigen binding under physiological crowding conditions are scarce. Herein, we develop a coarse-grained model of IgG consisting of only six beads that we find minimal for a coarse representation of IgG's shape and a decent reproduction of its flexibility and diffusion properties measured experimentally. Using this model in Brownian dynamics simulations, we find that macromolecular crowding affects only slightly the IgG's flexibility, as described by the distribution of angles between the IgG's arms and stem. Our simulations indicate that, contrary to expectations, crowders slow down the translational diffusion of an IgG less strongly than they do for a smaller Ficoll 70, which we relate to the IgG's conformational size changes induced by crowding. We also find that crowders affect the binding kinetics by decreasing the rate of the first binding step and enhancing the second binding step.

Revealing the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein and Specific Antibody Immune Complex Formation Mechanism for Precise Evaluation of Antibody Affinity

The profound understanding and detailed evaluation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike (SCoV2-S) protein and specific antibody interaction mechanism is of high importance in the development of immunosensors for COVID-19. In the present work, we studied a model system of immobilized SCoV2-S protein and specific monoclonal antibodies by molecular dynamics of immune complex formation in real time. We simultaneously applied spectroscopic ellipsometry and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation to reveal the features and steps of the immune complex formation. We showed direct experimental evidence based on acoustic and optical measurements that the immune complex between covalently immobilized SCoV2-S and specific monoclonal antibodies is formed in two stages. Based on these findings it was demonstrated that applying a two-step binding mathematical model for kinetics analysis leads to a more precise determination of interaction rate constants than that determined by the 1:1 Langmuir binding model. Our investigation showed that the equilibrium dissociation constants (KD) determined by a two-step binding model and the 1:1 Langmuir model could differ significantly. The reported findings can facilitate a deeper understanding of antigen-antibody immune complex formation steps and can open a new way for the evaluation of antibody affinity towards corresponding antigens.

Thermofluorimetric Analysis (TFA) using Probes with Flexible Spacers: Application to Direct Antibody Sensing and to Antibody-Oligonucleotide (AbO) Conjugate Valency Monitoring

Antibodies have long been recognized as clinically relevant biomarkers of disease. The onset of a disease often stimulates antibody production in low quantities, making it crucial to develop sensitive, specific, and easy-to-use antibody assay platforms. Antibodies are also extensively used as probes in bioassays, and there is a need for simpler methods to evaluate specialized probes, such as antibody-oligonucleotide (AbO) conjugates. Previously, we demonstrated that thermofluorimetric analysis (TFA) of analyte-driven DNA assembly can be leveraged to detect protein biomarkers using AbO probes. A key advantage of this technique is its ability to circumvent autofluorescence arising from biological samples, which otherwise hampers homogeneous assays. The analysis of differential DNA melt curves (dF/dT) successfully distinguishes the signal from the background and interferences. Expanding the applicability of TFA further, herein we demonstrate a unique proximity based TFA assay for antibody quantification that is functional in 90% human plasma. We show that the conformational flexibility of the DNA-based proximity probes is critically important for optimal performance in these assays. To promote stable, proximity-induced hybridization of the short DNA strands, substitution of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) spacers in place of ssDNA segments led to improved conformational flexibility and sensor performance. Finally, by applying these flexible spacers to study AbO conjugates directly, we validate this modified TFA approach as a novel tool to elucidate the probe valency, clearly distinguishing between monovalent and multivalent AbOs and reducing the reagent amounts by 12-fold.

Tunable Multivalent Platform for Immune Recruitment to Lower Antigen Expressing Cancers

Chemical immunotherapeutic strategies including Antibody Recruiting Molecules (ARMs - bivalent small molecules containing an antibody-binding domain (ABD) and a target-binding domain (TBD)) direct immune-mediated clearance of diseased cells. Anti-cancer ARM function relies on high tumor antigen valency, limiting function against lower antigen expressing tumors. To address this limitation, we report a tunable multivalent immune recruitment (MIR) platform to amplify/stabilize antibody recruitment to cells with lower antigen valencies. An initial set of polymeric ARMs (pARMs) were synthesized and screened to evaluate ABD/TBD copy number, ratio, and steric occlusion on specific immune induction. Most pARMs demonstrated simultaneous high avidity binding to anti-dinitrophenyl antibodies and prostate-specific membrane antigens on prostate cancer. Optimized pARMs mediated enhanced anti-cancer immune function against lower antigen expressing target cells compared to an analogous ARM.

Hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry identifies the dominant paratope in CD20 antigen binding to the NCD1.2 monoclonal antibody

A comparative canine–human therapeutics model is being developed in B-cell lymphoma through the generation of a hybridoma cell that produces a murine monoclonal antibody specific for canine CD20. The hybridoma cell produces two light chains, light chain-3, and light chain-7. However, the contribution of either light chain to the authentic full-length hybridoma derived IgG is undefined. Mass spectrometry was used to identify only one of the two light chains, light chain-7, as predominating in the full-length IgG. Gene synthesis created a recombinant murine–canine chimeric monoclonal antibody expressing light chain-7 that reconstituted the IgG binding to CD20. Using light chain-7 as a reference sequence, hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry was used to identify the dominant CDR region implicated in CD20 antigen binding. Early in the deuteration reaction, the CD20 antigen suppressed deuteration at CDR3 (V_H). In later time points, deuterium suppression occurred at CDR2 (V_H) and CDR2 (V_L), with the maintenance of the CDR3 (V_H) interaction. These data suggest that CDR3 (V_H) functions as the dominant antigen docking motif and that antibody aggregation is induced at later time points after antigen binding. These approaches define a methodology for fine mapping of CDR contacts using nested enzymatic reactions and hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry. These data support the further development of an engineered, synthetic canine–murine monoclonal antibody, focused on CDR3 (V_H), for use as a canine lymphoma therapeutic that mimics the human–murine chimeric anti-CD20 antibody Rituximab.

Evaluation of kinetics and thermodynamics of interaction between immobilized SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein and specific antibodies by total internal reflection ellipsometry

During the pandemic, different methods for SARS-CoV-2 detection and COVID-19 diagnostics were developed, including antibody and antigen tests. For a better understanding of the interaction mechanism between SARS-CoV-2 virus proteins and specific antibodies, total internal reflection ellipsometry based evaluation of the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein (SCoV2-rN) and anti-SCoV2-rN antibodies was performed. Results show that the appropriate mathematical model, which takes into account the formation of an intermediate complex, can be applied for the evaluation of SCoV2-rN/anti-SCoV2-rN complex formation kinetics. The calculated steric factor indicated that SCoV2-rN/anti-SCoV2-rN complex formation has very strict steric requirements. Estimated Gibbs free energy (ΔG_Assoc) for SCoV-rN and anti-SCoV-rN binding was determined as −34 kJ/mol. The reported findings are useful for the design of new analytical systems for the determination of anti-SCoV2-rN antibodies and for the development of new anti-SARS-CoV-2 medications.

Mesoscale computational protocols for the design of highly cooperative bivalent macromolecules

The last decade has witnessed a swiftly increasing interest in the design and production of novel multivalent molecules as powerful alternatives for conventional antibodies in the fight against cancer and infectious diseases. However, while it is widely accepted that large-scale flexibility (10–100 nm) and free/constrained dynamics (100 ns -μs) control the activity of such novel molecules, computational strategies at the mesoscale still lag behind experiments in optimizing the design of crucial features, such as the binding cooperativity (a.k.a. avidity). In this study, we introduced different coarse-grained models of a polymer-linked, two-nanobody composite molecule, with the aim of laying down the physical bases of a thorough computational drug design protocol at the mesoscale. We show that the calculation of suitable potentials of mean force allows one to apprehend the nature, range and strength of the thermodynamic forces that govern the motion of free and wall-tethered molecules. Furthermore, we develop a simple computational strategy to quantify the encounter/dissociation dynamics between the free end of a wall-tethered molecule and the surface, at the roots of binding cooperativity. This procedure allows one to pinpoint the role of internal flexibility and weak non-specific interactions on the kinetic constants of the nanobody-wall encounter and dissociation. Finally, we quantify the role and weight of rare events, which are expected to play a major role in real-life situations, such as in the immune synapse, where the binding kinetics is likely dominated by fluctuations.

Antibody Complexes

Monoclonal based therapeutics have always been looked at as a futuristic natural way we could take care of pathogens and many diseases. However, in order to develop, establish and realize monoclonal based therapy we need to understand how the immune system contains or kill pathogens. Antibody complexes serve the means to decode this black box. We have discussed examples of antibody complexes both at biochemical and structural levels to understand and appreciate how discoveries in the field of antibody complexes have started to decoded mechanism of viral invasion and create potential vaccine targets against many pathogens. Antibody complexes have made advancement in our knowledge about the molecular interaction between antibody and antigen. It has also led to identification of potent protective monoclonal antibodies. Further use of selective combination of monoclonal antibodies have provided improved protection against deadly diseases. The administration of newly designed and improved immunogen has been used as potential vaccine. Therefore, antibody complexes are important tools to develop new vaccine targets and design an improved combination of monoclonal antibodies for passive immunization or protection with very little or no side effects.

Synthesis and comparison of linear and hyperbranched multivalent glycosides for C-type lectin binding

Hyperbranched and linear polyglycerol-based mannoside and fucosyllactoside residues with different ligand densities showed nanomolar binding affinities for MBL and DC-SIGN proteins.

Antigen binding allosterically promotes Fc receptor recognition

A key question in immunology is whether antigen recognition and Fc receptor (FcR) binding are allosterically linked. This question is also relevant for therapeutic antibody design. Antibody Fab and Fc domains are connected by flexible unstructured hinge region. Fc chains have conserved glycosylation sites at Asn297, with each conjugated to a core heptasaccharide and forming biantennary Fc glycan. The glycans modulate the Fc conformations and functions. It is well known that the antibody Fab and Fc domains and glycan affect antibody activity, but whether these elements act independently or synergistically is still uncertain. We simulated four antibody complexes: free antibody, antigen-bound antibody, FcR-bound antibody, and an antigen-antibody-FcR complex. We found that, in the antibody's "T/Y" conformation, the glycans, and the Fc domain all respond to antigen binding, with the antibody population shifting to two dominant clusters, both with the Fc-receptor binding site open. The simulations reveal that the Fc-glycan-receptor complexes also segregate into two conformational clusters, one corresponding to the antigen-free antibody-FcR baseline binding, and the other with an antigen-enhanced antibody-FcR interaction. Our study confirmed allosteric communications in antibody-antigen recognition and following FcR activation. Even though we observed allosteric communications through the IgG domains, the most important mechanism that we observed is the communication via population shift, stimulated by antigen binding and propagating to influence FcR recognition.

Synthesis of nanomedicines by nanohybrids conjugating ginsenosides with auto-targeting and enhanced MRI contrast for liver cancer therapy

A new methodology has been developed with conjugating nanoparticles (NPs) with an active ingredient of Chinese herbs for nanomedicines with auto-targeting and enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for liver cancer therapy. Fe@Fe₃O₄ NPs are first synthesized via the programed microfluidic process, whose surfaces are first modified with -NH₂ groups using a silane coupling technique that uses (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (APTMS) as the coupling reagent and are subsequently activated by the bifunctional amine-active cross-linker [e.g. disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS)]. The model medicines of ginsenosides pre-activated by APTMS are further cross-linked with activated NPs, forming the desired nanomedicines (Nano-Fe-GSS). Sizes and structures of Fe@Fe₃O₄ NPs were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction, revealing that their core-shell structures consist of amorphous boron doped Fe cores and partial crystalline Fe₃O₄ shells. The accomplishment of coupling reactions in the final nanomedicines is confirmed by the characterization of the composition of NPs and Nano-Fe-GSS via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The nanoparticles' effects as MRI contrast agents are further investigated by comparing the T₂ weighted spin echo imaging (T2WI) in livers before and after intravenous injection and intragastric administration of nanomedicines. The results indicate that these nanomedicines possess enhanced MRI effects. Investigation of the toxicity and metabolism of Nano-Fe-GSS suggests that they are safe to related vital organs. The results provide an efficient alternative route to synthesize desired multi-functional nanomedicines based on NPs and the active ingredients of Chinese herbs, which can promote their potential synergistic effects in anti-tumor therapy.

Unraveling intermittent features in single-particle trajectories by a local convex hull method

We propose a model-free method to detect change points between distinct phases in a single random trajectory of an intermittent stochastic process. The local convex hull (LCH) is constructed for each trajectory point, while its geometric properties (e.g., the diameter or the volume) are used as discriminators between phases. The efficiency of the LCH method is validated for six models of intermittent motion, including Brownian motion with different diffusivities or drifts, fractional Brownian motion with different Hurst exponents, and surface-mediated diffusion. We discuss potential applications of the method for detection of active and passive phases in the intracellular transport, temporal trapping or binding of diffusing molecules, alternating bulk and surface diffusion, run and tumble (or search) phases in the motion of bacteria and foraging animals, and instantaneous firing rates in neurons.

Theory of diffusion-influenced reactions in complex geometries

Chemical transformations involving the diffusion of reactants and subsequent chemical fixation steps are generally termed "diffusion-influenced reactions" (DIR). Virtually all biochemical processes in living media can be counted among them, together with those occurring in an ever-growing number of emerging nano-technologies. The role of the environment's geometry (obstacles, compartmentalization) and distributed reactivity (competitive reactants, traps) is key in modulating the rate constants of DIRs, and is therefore a prime design parameter. Yet, it is a formidable challenge to build a comprehensive theory that is able to describe the environment's "reactive geometry". Here we show that such a theory can be built by unfolding this many-body problem through addition theorems for special functions. Our method is powerful and general and allows one to study a given DIR reaction occurring in arbitrary "reactive landscapes", made of multiple spherical boundaries of given size and reactivity. Importantly, ready-to-use analytical formulas can be derived easily in most cases.