Short-term monocular occlusion produces changes in ocular dominance by a reciprocal modulation of interocular inhibition

An anti-Hebbian model for binocular visual plasticity and its attentional modulation

Monocular deprivation during the critical period impairs the cortical structure and visual function of the deprived eye. Conversely, transient occlusion of one eye in adults enhances the predominance of that eye. This counter-intuitive effect of short-term monocular deprivation is a form of homeostatic plasticity. However, whether this sensory plasticity requires attention, and the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. Here, through a psychophysical experiment, we demonstrate that the deprivation effect is dramatically attenuated in the absence of attention. We develop a neural computational model incorporating the Hebbian learning rule in interocular inhibitory synapses (i.e., anti-Hebbian learning) to explain the deprivation effect. Our model predicts both the boosting of the deprived eye and its dependence on attention. Moreover, it accounts for other forms of binocular plasticity, including plasticity observed in prolonged binocular rivalry. We suggest that short-term binocular plasticity arises from the plasticity in inhibitory connections between the two monocular pathways.

The interplay between Hebbian and homeostatic plasticity in the adult visual cortex

Homeostatic and Hebbian plasticity co-operate during the critical period, refining neuronal circuits; however, the interaction between these two forms of plasticity is still unclear, especially in adulthood. Here, we directly investigate this issue in adult humans using two consolidated paradigms to elicit each form of plasticity in the visual cortex: the long-term potentiation-like change of the visual evoked potential (VEP) induced by high-frequency stimulation (HFS) and the shift of ocular dominance induced by short-term monocular deprivation (MD). We tested homeostatic and Hebbian plasticity independently, then explored how they interacted by inducing them simultaneously in a group of adult healthy volunteers. We successfully induced both forms of plasticity: 60 min of MD induced a reliable change in ocular dominance and HFS reliably modulated the amplitude of the P1 component of the VEP. Importantly, we found that, across participants, homeostatic and Hebbian plasticity were negatively correlated, indicating related neural mechanisms, potentially linked to intracortical excitation/inhibition balance. On the other hand, we did not find an interaction when the two forms of plasticity were induced simultaneously. Our results indicate a largely preserved plastic potential in the visual cortex of the adult brain, for both short-term homeostatic and Hebbian plasticity. Crucially, we show for the first time a direct relationship between these two forms of plasticity in the adult human visual cortex, which could inform future research and treatment protocols for neurological diseases. KEY POINTS: Homeostatic and Hebbian plasticity co-operate during the critical period to refine neuronal circuits in the visual cortex. The interaction between these two forms of plasticity is still unknown, especially after the closure of the critical periods and in humans. We directly investigate the interplay between Hebbian and homeostatic visual plasticity in adult humans using non-invasive paradigms. We found a negative correlation between these forms of plasticity showing for the first time a direct relationship between Hebbian and homeostatic plasticity. Our results could inform future research and treatment protocols for neurological diseases.

A comparative study of mini-monovision, crossed mini-monovision, and emmetropia with enhanced monofocal intraocular lenses

We compared the visual performance and subjective outcomes of mini-monovision, crossed mini-monovision, and bilateral emmetropia using enhanced monofocal intraocular lenses (IOLs). This retrospective study involved 200 eyes of 100 patients who underwent surgery for bilateral age-related cataract using an enhanced monofocal IOL (TECNIS Eyhance). The dominant eye was identified before surgery. Based on patients' preferences, they were divided into mini-monovision (dominant eye for distance and non-dominant eye for near with 1.0 D anisometropia), crossed mini-monovision (dominant eye for near and non-dominant eye for distance with 1.0 D anisometropia), or bilateral emmetropia groups. There were 32 patients in the mini-monovision group, 28 in the crossed mini-monovision group, and 40 in the emmetropia group. While binocular distance visual acuity was not different among groups, intermediate and near visual acuity was significantly better in the mini-monovision and crossed mini-monovision groups than in the emmetropia group (p < 0.001). The severity of glare and halo, as well as the level of patient satisfaction, did not differ between groups. The rate of spectacle independence was significantly higher in the mini-monovision and crossed mini-monovision groups than in the emmetropia group (p = 0.008). Mini-monovision and crossed mini-monovision approaches using enhanced monofocal IOLs are equally effective in enhancing intermediate and near vision without compromising distance vision, leading to reduced spectacle dependence.

Pupillometry indexes ocular dominance plasticity

Short-term monocular deprivation in normally sighted adult humans produces a transient shift of ocular dominance, boosting the deprived eye. This effect has been documented with both perceptual tests and through physiological recordings, but no previous study simultaneously measured physiological responses and the perceptual effects of deprivation. Here we propose an integrated experimental paradigm that combines binocular rivalry with pupillometry, to introduce an objective physiological index of ocular dominance plasticity, acquired concurrently with perceptual testing. Ten participants reported the perceptual dynamics of binocular rivalry, while we measured pupil diameter. Stimuli were a white and a black disk, each presented monocularly. Rivalry dynamics and pupil-size traces were compared before and after 2 h of monocular deprivation, achieved by applying a translucent patch over the dominant eye. Consistent with prior research, we observed that monocular deprivation boosts the deprived-eye signal and consequently increases ocular dominance. In line with previous studies, we also observed subtle but systematic modulations of pupil size that tracked alternations between exclusive dominance phases of the black or white disk. Following monocular deprivation, the amplitude of these pupil-size modulations increased, which is consistent with the post-deprivation boost of the deprived eye and the increase of ocular dominance. This provides evidence that deprivation impacts the effective strength of monocular visual stimuli, coherently affecting perceptual reports and the automatic and unconscious regulation of pupil diameter. Our results show that a combined paradigm of binocular rivalry and pupillometry gives new insights into the physiological mechanisms underlying deprivation effects.

Daily dose-response from short-term monocular deprivation in adult humans

Short-term monocular deprivation (MD) shifts sensory eye balance in favour of the previously deprived eye. The effect of MD on eye balance is significant but brief in adult humans. Recently, researchers and clinicians have attempted to implement MD in clinical settings for adults with impaired binocular vision. Although the effect of MD has been studied in detail in single-session protocols, what is not known is whether the effect of MD on eye balance deteriorates after repeated periods of MD (termed 'perceptual deterioration'). An answer to this question is relevant for two reasons. Firstly, the effect of MD (i.e., dose-response) should not decrease with repeated use if MD is to be used therapeutically (e.g., daily for weeks). Second, it bears upon the question of whether the neural basis of the effects of MD and contrast adaptation, a closely related phenomenon, is the same. The sensory change from contrast adaptation depends on recent experience. If the observer has recently experienced the same adaptation multiple times for consecutive days, then the adaptation effect will be smaller because contrast adaptation exhibits perceptual deterioration, so it is of interest to know if the effects of MD follow suit. This study measured the effect of 2-h MD for seven consecutive days on binocular balance of 15 normally sighted adults. We found that the shift in eye balance from MD stayed consistent, showing no signs of deterioration after subjects experienced multiple periods of MD. This finding shows no loss of effectiveness of repeated daily doses of MD if used therapeutically to rebalance binocular vision in otherwise normal individuals. Furthermore, ocular dominance plasticity, which is the basis of the effects of short-term MD, does not seem to share the property of 'perceptual deterioration' with contrast adaptation, suggesting different neural bases for these two related phenomena.

Reduced interocular suppression after inverse patching in anisometropic amblyopia

Purpose

Recent investigations observed substantial enhancements in binocular balance, visual acuity, and stereovision among older children and adults with amblyopia by patching the amblyopic eye (i.e., inverse patching) for 2 h daily over 2 months. Despite these promising findings, the precise neural mechanisms underlying inverse patching remain elusive. This study endeavors to delve deeper into the neural alterations induced by inverse patching, focusing on steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs). We specifically investigate the changes in SSVEPs following monocular deprivation of either the fellow eye or the amblyopic eye in older amblyopic children and adults.

Method

Ten participants (17.60 ± 2.03 years old; mean ± SEM), clinically diagnosed with anisometropic amblyopia, were recruited for this study. Each participant underwent a 120 min patching session on their fellow eye on the first day, followed by a similar session on their amblyopic eye on the second day. Baseline steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEPs) measurements were collected each day prior to patching, with post-patching SSVEPs measurements obtained immediately after the patching session. The experimental design incorporated a binocular rivalry paradigm, utilizing SSVEPs measurements.

Results

The results revealed that inverse patching induced a heightened influence on neural plasticity, manifesting in a reduction of interocular suppression from the fellow eye to the amblyopic eye. In contrast, patching the fellow eye demonstrated negligible effects on the visual cortex. Furthermore, alterations in interocular suppression subsequent to inverse patching exhibited a correlation with the visual acuity of the amblyopic eye.

Conclusion

Inverse patching emerges as a promising therapeutic avenue for adolescents and adults grappling with severe anisometropic amblyopia that proves refractory to conventional interventions. This innovative approach exhibits the potential to induce more robust neural plasticity within the visual cortex, thereby modulating neural interactions more effectively than traditional amblyopia treatments.

The Suppressive Basis of Ocular Dominance Changes Induced by Short-Term Monocular Deprivation in Normal and Amblyopic Adults

Purpose

We aimed to study the effect of short-term monocular deprivation on the suppressive interocular interactions in normals and amblyopes by using a dichoptic masking paradigm.

Methods

Nine adults with anisometropic or mixed amblyopia and 10 control adults participated in our study. The contrast sensitivity in discriminating a target Gabor dichoptically masked was measured before and after 2 hours of monocular deprivation. The mask consisted of bandpass-filtered noise. Both the target and the mask were horizontally oriented at the spatial frequency of 1.31 cpd. Deprivation was achieved using an opaque patch on the amblyopic eye of amblyopes and the dominant eye of controls.

Results

Results were similar in both controls and amblyopes. After 2 hours of monocular deprivation, the previously patched eye showed a significant increase in contrast sensitivity under dichoptic masking, which also suggested reduced suppressive effect from the nonpatched eye. Meanwhile, the contrast sensitivity of the nonpatched eye remained almost unchanged under dichoptic masking.

Conclusions

We demonstrate that the ocular dominance changes induced by short-term monocular deprivation-namely, the strengthening of the deprived eye's contribution-are associated with the unilateral and asymmetric changes in suppressive interaction. The suppression from the nondeprived eye is reduced after short-term monocular deprivation. This provides a better understanding of how inverse patching (patching of the amblyopic eye) could, by reducing the suppressive drive from the normally sighted (nondeprived) eye, form the basis of a new treatment for the binocular deficit in amblyopia.

The duration effect of short-term monocular deprivation measured by binocular rivalry and binocular combination

The ocular dominance shift observed after short-term monocular deprivation is a widely used measure of visual homeostatic plasticity in adult humans. Binocular rivalry and binocular combination techniques are used interchangeably to characterize homeostatic plasticity, sometimes leading to contradictory results. Here we directly compare the effect of short-term monocular deprivation on ocular dominance measured by either binocular rivalry or binocular combination and its dependence on the duration of deprivation (15 or 120 min) in the same group of participants. Our results show that both binocular rivalry and binocular combination provide reliable estimates of ocular dominance, which are strongly correlated across techniques both before and after deprivation. Moreover, while 15 min of monocular deprivation induce a larger shift of ocular dominance when measured using binocular combination compared to binocular rivalry, for both techniques, the shift in ocular dominance exhibits a strong dependence on the duration of monocular deprivation, with longer deprivation inducing a larger and longer-lasting shift in ocular dominance. Taken together, our results indicate that both binocular rivalry and binocular combination offer very consistent and reliable measurements of both ocular dominance and the effect short-term monocular deprivation.

Measuring the reliability of binocular rivalry

Binocular rivalry is a widely used tool in sensory and cognitive neuroscience to investigate different aspects of vision and cognition. The dynamics of binocular rivalry (e.g., duration of perceptual dominance phases and mixed percept proportions) differ across individuals; based on rivalry dynamics, it is also possible to calculate an index of ocular dominance (by comparing the perceptual dominance of the images in the two eyes). In this study, we investigated the reliability of binocular rivalry dynamics using different methods for dichoptic stimulation and different rivalry stimuli. For the three main indices we defined (ocular dominance, phase durations and mixed percept proportions), we found a high test-retest reliability across sessions. Moreover, the test-retest reliability of the ocular dominance index was predictable from its internal consistency, supporting its stability over time. Phase durations and mixed percept proportions, in contrast, had worse test-retest reliability than expected based on internal consistency, indicating that these parameters are susceptible to state-dependent changes. Our results support the use of the ocular dominance index and binocular rivalry in the measurement of sensory eye dominance and its plasticity, but advise caution when investigating the association between phase durations or mixed percepts and stable characteristics like psychological traits or disorders.

Quantitative interocular suppression in children with intermittent exotropia

Purpose

We have demonstrated that the depth of unbalanced interocular suppression can be quantified by balancing the interocular luminance differences required when both eyes are viewing simultaneously. In this study, we aimed to investigate the applicability of this method in children with intermittent exotropia (IXT), offering a quantitative assessment of interocular suppression in individuals with binocular imbalance. Additionally, we evaluated its association with the clinical characteristics of IXT.

Methods

Interocular suppression in IXT was quantitatively measured using a polarizer and neutral-density (ND) filters. The density of the ND filter was adjusted incrementally from 0.3ND to 3ND, with a step size of 0.3ND (a total of 10 levels). Our prospective study involved 46 patients with IXT (mean age: 10.12 ± 4.89 years; mean ± SD) and 24 normal observers (mean age: 7.88 ± 1.83 years).

Results

The suppression test exhibited good test-retest reliability, supported by statistical analysis. We observed more pronounced interocular suppression in individuals with IXT compared to controls. Notably, the magnitude of suppression during distant and near viewing significantly differed in IXT (1.55 ± 0.93 vs. 0.57 ± 0.64; Z = 4.764, p < 0.001). Furthermore, we identified a positive correlation between interocular suppression and data obtained from the Worth-4-Dot test. Additionally, interocular suppression showed a significant association with distance control scores.

Conclusion

Our novel test offers a convenient and reliable means to quantify interocular suppression in patients with IXT. The quantitative assessment of interocular suppression provides a sensitive tool to evaluate the clinical characteristics of IXT.

Short-term homeostatic visual neuroplasticity in adolescents after two hours of monocular deprivation

In healthy adults with normal vision, temporary deprivation of one eye's visual experience produces transient yet robust homeostatic plasticity effects, where the deprived eye becomes more dominant. This shift in ocular dominance is short-lived and compensatory. Previous work shows that monocular deprivation decreases resting state gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA; inhibitory neurotransmitter) levels in visual cortex, and that those with the greatest reduction in GABA have stronger shifts due to monocular deprivation. Components of the GABAergic system in visual cortex vary with age (early childhood, early teen years, ageing); hence if GABA is critical to homeostatic plasticity within the visual system, adolescence may be a key developmental period where differences in plasticity manifest. Here we measured short-term visual deprivation effects on binocular rivalry in 24 adolescents (aged 10-15 years) and 23 young adults (aged 20-25 years). Despite differences in baseline features of binocular rivalry (adolescents showed more mixed percept p < 0.001 and a tendency for faster switching p = 0.06 compared to adults), deprived eye dominance increased (p = 0.01) similarly for adolescents and adults after two hours of patching. Other aspects of binocular rivalry - time to first switch (heralding the onset of rivalry) and mixed percept - were unaltered by patching. These findings suggest that binocular rivalry after patching can be used as a behavioral proxy for experience-dependent visual cortical plasticity in adolescents in the same way as adults, and that homeostatic plasticity to compensate for temporarily reduced visual input is established and effective by adolescence.

Short-term ocular dominance plasticity is not modulated by visual cortex tDCS but increases with length of monocular deprivation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the occipital lobe may modulate visual cortex neuroplasticity. We assessed the acute effect of visual cortex anodal (a-)tDCS on ocular dominance plasticity induced by short-term monocular deprivation (MD), a well-established technique for inducing homeostatic plasticity in the visual system. In Experiment 1, active or sham visual cortex tDCS was applied during the last 20 min of 2-h MD following a within-subjects design (n = 17). Ocular dominance was measured using two computerized tests. The magnitude of ocular dominance plasticity was unaffected by a-tDCS. In Experiment 2 (n = 9), we investigated whether a ceiling effect of MD was masking the effect of active tDCS. We replicated Experiment 1 but used only 30 min of MD. The magnitude of ocular dominance plasticity was decreased with the shorter intervention, but there was still no effect of active a-tDCS. Within the constraints of our experimental design and a-tDCS parameters, visual cortex a-tDCS did not modulate the homeostatic mechanisms that drive ocular dominance plasticity in participants with normal binocular vision.

Is ocular dominance plasticity a special case of contrast adaptation?

The visual system can regulate its sensitivity depending on the prevailing contrast conditions. This is known as contrast adaptation and reflects contrast gain changes at different stages along the visual pathway. Recently, it has been shown that depriving an eye of visual stimulation for a short period of time can lead to neuroplastic changes in ocular dominance as the result of homeostatic changes in contrast gain. Here we examine, on the basis of previously published results, whether the neuroplastic ocular dominance changes are just manifestation of the mechanism responsible for contrast adaptation. The evidence suggests that these two visual processes are separate and do not have a common neural substrate.

Internal neural states influence the short-term effect of monocular deprivation in human adults

The adult human visual system maintains the ability to be altered by sensory deprivation. What has not been considered is whether the internal neural states modulate visual sensitivity to short-term monocular deprivation. In this study we manipulated the internal neural state and reported changes in intrinsic neural oscillations with a patched eye open or closed. We investigated the influence of eye open/eye closure on the unpatched eye's contrast sensitivity and ocular dominance (OD) shifts induced by short-term monocular deprivation. The results demonstrate that internal neural states influence not only baseline contrast sensitivity but also the extent to which the adult visual system can undergo changes in ocular dominance.

The shift in sensory eye dominance from short-term monocular deprivation exhibits no dependence on test spatial frequency

Background

Studies have shown that short-term monocular deprivation induces a shift in sensory eye dominance in favor of the deprived eye. Yet, how short-term monocular deprivation modulates sensory eye dominance across spatial frequency is not clear. To address this issue, we conducted a study to investigate the dependence of short-term monocular deprivation effect on test spatial frequency.

Methods

Ten healthy young adults (age: 24.7 ± 1.7 years, four males) with normal vision participated. We deprived their dominant eye with a translucent patch for 2.5 h. The interocular contrast ratio (dominant eye/non-dominant eye, i.e., the balance point [BP]), which indicates the contribution that the two eyes make to binocular combination, was measured using a binocular orientation combination task. We assessed if BPs at 0.5, 4 or 6 cycles/degree (c/d) change as a result of monocular deprivation. Different test spatial frequency conditions were conducted on three separate days in a random fashion.

Results

We compared the BPs at 0.5, 4 and 6 c/d before and after monocular deprivation. The BPs were found to be significantly affected by deprivation, where sensory eye dominance shift to the deprived eye (F_{1.86, 16.76} = 33.09, P < 0.001). The changes of BP were consistent at 0.5, 4, and 6 c/d spatial frequencies (F_2,18 = 0.15, P = 0.57).

Conclusion

The sensory eye dominance plasticity induced by short-term deprivation is not dependent on test spatial frequency, suggesting it could provide a practical solution for amblyopic therapy that was concerned with the binocular outcome.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40662-022-00303-4.

Mutual interaction between visual homeostatic plasticity and sleep in adult humans

Sleep and plasticity are highly interrelated, as sleep slow oscillations and sleep spindles are associated with consolidation of Hebbian-based processes. However, in adult humans, visual cortical plasticity is mainly sustained by homeostatic mechanisms, for which the role of sleep is still largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that non-REM sleep stabilizes homeostatic plasticity of ocular dominance induced in adult humans by short-term monocular deprivation: the counterintuitive and otherwise transient boost of the deprived eye was preserved at the morning awakening (>6 hr after deprivation). Subjects exhibiting a stronger boost of the deprived eye after sleep had increased sleep spindle density in frontopolar electrodes, suggesting the involvement of distributed processes. Crucially, the individual susceptibility to visual homeostatic plasticity soon after deprivation correlated with the changes in sleep slow oscillations and spindle power in occipital sites, consistent with a modulation in early occipital visual cortex.

A brief light reduction induces a significant delay in the previously dimmed eye

PURPOSE

We investigated how a short-term luminance reduction in one eye can influence temporal processing of that eye after luminance is restored by measuring the relative delay between the eyes.

METHODS

A paradigm based on the Pulfrich effect, which is a visual illusion of depth when no depth cue is present, was used to measure relative delay in visual processing between the eyes. We deprived the monocular luminance in adults with normal vision across different intensities. In the first experiment, the ratio of the light level between the eyes stayed constant, whereas the absolute value was allowed to vary. In the second experiment, both the ratio and the absolute light level stayed constant, by controlling the environmental light level. In both experiments, we measured the changes in relative delay before and after 60 min of light deprivation.

RESULTS

Our results indicated that short-term monocular deprivation of luminance slows the processing in the previously dimmed eye and that the magnitude of the delay is correlated with the degree of luminance reduction. In addition, we observed that the absolute luminance difference, rather than the absolute luminance levels seen by the dimmed eye, is important in determining the magnitude of delay in the previously dimmed eye. These findings differ from what has been reported previously for the monocular deprivation of contrast.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these findings support the view that short-term deprivation of visual information could affect two distinct mechanisms (contrast gain and temporal dynamics) of neural plasticity.

Aerobic Exercise and Human Visual Cortex Neuroplasticity: A Narrative Review

There is compelling evidence from animal models that physical exercise can enhance visual cortex neuroplasticity. In this narrative review, we explored whether exercise has the same effect in humans. We found that while some studies report evidence consistent with exercise-induced enhancement of human visual cortex neuroplasticity, others report no effect or even reduced neuroplasticity following exercise. Differences in study methodology may partially explain these varying results. Because the prospect of exercise increasing human visual cortex neuroplasticity has important implications for vision rehabilitation, additional research is required to resolve this discrepancy in the literature.

Rapid alternate monocular deprivation does not affect binocular balance and correlation in human adults

Recent studies show that the human adult visual system exhibits neural plasticity. For instance, short-term monocular deprivation shifts the eye dominance in favor of the deprived eye. This phenomenon is believed to occur in the primary visual cortex by reinstating neural plasticity. However, it is unknown whether the changes in eye dominance after monocularly depriving the visual input can also be induced by alternately depriving both eyes. In this study, we found no changes in binocular balance and interocular correlation sensitivity after a rapid (7 Hz), alternate and monocular deprivation for one hour in adults. Therefore, the effect of short-term monocular deprivation cannot seem to be emulated by alternately and rapidly depriving both eyes.Significance statementPrevious work has shown that short-term binocular function disruption, which its most extreme form is monocular deprivation, could induce neural plasticity in adult visual system. In this study, we found a balanced deprivation of binocular function could not induce a neuroplastic change in human adults. It appears that ocular dominance plasticity in human adults is unique in so far as it is only driven by an input imbalance not balanced deprivation of binocular function.

Short-term plasticity in the human visual thalamus

While there is evidence that the visual cortex retains a potential for plasticity in adulthood, less is known about the subcortical stages of visual processing. Here we asked whether short-term ocular dominance plasticity affects the human visual thalamus. We addressed this question in normally sighted adult humans, using ultra-high field (7T) magnetic resonance imaging combined with the paradigm of short-term monocular deprivation. With this approach, we previously demonstrated transient shifts of perceptual eye dominance and ocular dominance in visual cortex (Binda et al., 2018). Here we report evidence for short-term plasticity in the ventral division of the pulvinar (vPulv), where the deprived eye representation was enhanced over the non-deprived eye. This ventral-pulvinar plasticity was similar as previously seen in visual cortex and it was correlated with the ocular dominance shift measured behaviorally. In contrast, there was no effect of monocular deprivation in two adjacent thalamic regions: dorsal pulvinar (dPulv), and Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN). We conclude that the visual thalamus retains potential for short-term plasticity in adulthood; the plasticity effect differs across thalamic subregions, possibly reflecting differences in their cortico-fugal connectivity.

Exercise alone impacts short-term adult visual neuroplasticity in a monocular deprivation paradigm

Adult homeostatic visual plasticity can be induced by short-term patching, heralded by a shift in ocular dominance in favor of the deprived eye after monocular occlusion. The potential to boost visual neuroplasticity with environmental enrichment such as exercise has also been explored; however, the results are inconsistent, with some studies finding no additive effect of exercise. Studies to date have only considered the effect of patching alone or in combination with exercise. Whether exercise alone affects typical outcome measures of experimental estimates of short-term visual neuroplasticity is unknown. We therefore measured binocular rivalry in 20 healthy young adults (20–34 years old) at baseline and after three 2-hour interventions: patching (of the dominant eye) only, patching with exercise, and exercise only. Consistent with previous work, the patching interventions produced a shift in ocular dominance toward the deprived (dominant) eye. Mild- to moderate-intensity exercise in the absence of patching had several effects on binocular rivalry metrics, including a reduction in the dominant eye percept. The proportion of mixed percept and the time to first switch (onset rivalry) did not change from baseline across all interventions. Thus, we demonstrate that exercise alone can impact binocular rivalry outcomes measures. We did not observe a synergistic effect between patching and exercise in our data.

Some psychophysical tasks measure ocular dominance plasticity more reliably than others

In the recent decade, studies have shown that short-term monocular deprivation strengthens the deprived eye's contribution to binocular vision. However, the magnitude of the change in eye dominance after monocular deprivation (i.e., the patching effect) has been found to be different between different methods and within the same method. There are three possible explanations for the discrepancy. First, the mechanisms underlying the patching effect that are probed by different measurement tasks might exist at different neural sites. Second, the test–retest variability of the same test can produce inconsistent results. Third, the magnitude of the patching effect itself within the same observer can vary across separate days or experimental sessions. To explore these possibilities, we assessed the test–retest reliability of the three most commonly used tasks (binocular rivalry, binocular combination, and dichoptic masking) and the repeatability of the shift in eye dominance after short-term monocular deprivation for each of the task. Two variations for binocular phase combination were used, at one and many contrasts of the stimuli. Also, two variations for dichoptic masking were employed; the orientation of the mask grating was either horizontal or vertical. Thus, five different tasks were evaluated. We hoped to resolve some of the inconsistencies reported in the literature concerning this form of visual plasticity. In this study, we also aimed to recommend a measurement method that would allow us to better understand its physiological basis and the underpinning of visual disorders.

Attentional eye selection modulates sensory eye dominance

Brief periods of monocular deprivation significantly modify binocular visual processing. For example, patching one eye for a few hours alters the inter-ocular balance, with the previously patched eye becoming dominant once the patch is removed. However, the contribution of higher-level visual processing to this phenomenon is still unclear. Here, we compared changes in sensory eye dominance produced by three types of monocular manipulations in adult participants with normal binocular vision. One eye was covered for 150 min using either an opaque patch, a diffusing lens, or a prism that inverted the image. All three manipulations altered dominance duration and predominance during binocular rivalry (BR) in favour of the treated eye and the time courses of the changes were similar. These results indicate that modifications of luminance or contrast are not strictly necessary to drive shifts in eye dominance, as both were unaltered in the prism condition. Next, we found that shifts in eye dominance were dependent on attentional demands during the monocular treatment period, providing support for the role of attentional eye selection in modulating eye dominance. Finally, we found relatively rapid build-up of the ocular dominance shift after the onset of monocular treatment. Taken together, our results suggest that modifications to monocular input alter inter-ocular balance via selective attentional mechanisms that bias output towards the deprived eye. Eye-based attention may play an important role in conditions where normal input to one eye is disrupted, such as childhood amblyopia.

Short-term monocular deprivation induces an interocular delay

Short term monocular deprivation modulates ocular dominance, such that the previously deprived eye's contribution to the binocular percept increases, supposedly as a result of changes in contrast-gain. Therefore, the processing time of the previously patched eye would be expected to speed up as a result of an increase in contrast gain. In order to test this hypothesis, this study examines the effects of short-term monocular deprivation on interocular synchronicity. The present study uses a paradigm based on the Pulfrich phenomenon. The stimulus used for testing consists of elements defining a cylinder rotating in depth, that allows measurement of any interocular delay. The interocular delay was measured at baseline before patching and at outcome, after one hour of monocular deprivation with an opaque or translucent patch. Contrary to expectations, short-term monocular deprivation induces an interocular delay, albeit not always significant, in the previously patched eye. The amplitude of this effect is larger with opaque patching compared to translucent patching. These results are the first report of a non-beneficial effect - i.e. a slowing down in the processing time of the previously patched-eye. They indicate that the plasticity effects of monocular deprivation are not exclusively mediated by contrast gain mechanisms and that light adaptation mechanisms might also be involved in the plasticity resulting from short-term monocular deprivation.

The ups and downs of sensory eye balance: Monocular deprivation has a biphasic effect on interocular dominance

Classic studies of ocular dominance plasticity in early development showed that monocular deprivation suppresses the neural representation and visual function of the deprived eye. However, recent studies have shown that a short period of monocular deprivation (<3 h) in normal adult humans, shifts sensory eye dominance in favor of the deprived eye. How can these opposing effects be reconciled? Here we argue that there are two systems acting in opposition at different time scales. A fast acting, stabilizing, homeostatic system that rapidly decreases gain in the non-deprived eye or increases gain in the deprived eye, and a relatively sluggish system that shifts balance toward the non-deprived eye, in an effort to reduce input of little utility to active vision. If true, then continuous deprivation should produce a biphasic effect on interocular balance, first shifting balance away from the non-deprived eye, then towards it. Here we investigated the time course of the deprivation effect by monocularly depriving typical adults for 10 h and conducting tests of sensory eye balance at six intervening time points. Consistent with previous short-term deprivation work, we found shifts in sensory eye dominance away from the non-deprived eye up until approximately 5 h. We then observed a turning point, with balance shifting back towards the non-deprived eye, -, a biphasic effect. We argue that this turning point marks where the rapid homeostatic response saturates and is overtaken by the slower system responsible for suppressing monocular input of limited utility.

Brief period of monocular deprivation drives changes in audiovisual temporal perception

The human brain retains a striking degree of plasticity into adulthood. Recent studies have demonstrated that a short period of altered visual experience (via monocular deprivation) can change the dynamics of binocular rivalry in favor of the deprived eye, a compensatory action thought to be mediated by an upregulation of cortical gain control mechanisms. Here, we sought to better understand the impact of monocular deprivation on multisensory abilities, specifically examining audiovisual temporal perception. Using an audiovisual simultaneity judgment task, we discovered that 90 minutes of monocular deprivation produced opposing effects on the temporal binding window depending on the eye used in the task. Thus, in those who performed the task with their deprived eye there was a narrowing of the temporal binding window, whereas in those performing the task with their nondeprived eye there was a widening of the temporal binding window. The effect was short lived, being observed only in the first 10 minutes of postdeprivation testing. These findings indicate that changes in visual experience in the adult can rapidly impact multisensory perceptual processes, a finding that has important clinical implications for those patients with adult-onset visual deprivation and for therapies founded on monocular deprivation.

Neuroplasticity of the visual cortex: in sickness and in health

Brain plasticity refers to the ability of synaptic connections to adapt their function and structure in response to experience, including environmental changes, sensory deprivation and injuries. Plasticity is a distinctive, but not exclusive, property of the developing nervous system. This review introduces the concept of neuroplasticity and describes classic paradigms to illustrate cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying synapse modifiability. Then, we summarize a growing number of studies showing that the adult cerebral cortex retains a significant degree of plasticity highlighting how the identification of strategies to enhance the plastic potential of the adult brain could pave the way for the development of novel therapeutic approaches aimed at treating amblyopia and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Finally, we analyze how the visual system adjusts to neurodegenerative conditions leading to blindness and we discuss the crucial role of spared plasticity in the visual system for sight recovery.

Modulation of binocular rivalry with rapid monocular visual stimulation

Rapid visual stimulation can increase synaptic efficacy by repeated synaptic activation. This long-term potentiation-like (LTP-like) effect can induce increased excitability in the human visual cortex. To examine the effect of rapid visual stimulation on perception, we tested the hypothesis that rapid monocular visual stimulation would increase the dominance of the stimulated eye in a binocular rivalry task. Participants (n = 25) viewed orthogonal 0.5 cpd gratings presented in a dichoptic anaglyph to induce binocular rivalry. Rivalry dynamics (alternation rate, dominance, and piecemeal durations) were recorded before and after 2 min of rapid monocular stimulation (9 Hz flicker of one grating) or a binocular control condition (9 Hz alternation of the orthogonal gratings viewed binocularly). Rapid monocular stimulation did not affect alternation rates or piecemeal percept duration. Unexpectedly, the rivalry dominance of the stimulated eye was significantly reduced. A further experiment revealed that this effect could not be explained by monocular adaptation. Together, the results suggest that rapid monocular stimulation boosts dominance in the non-stimulated eye, possibly by activating homeostatic interocular gain control mechanisms.

Can Short-Term Ocular Dominance Plasticity Provide a General Index to Visual Plasticity to Personalize Treatment in Amblyopia?

Purpose

Recently, Lunghi et al. (2016) showed that amblyopic eye’s visual acuity per se after 2 months of occlusion therapy could be predicted by a homeostatic plasticity, that is, the temporary shift of perceptual eye dominance observed after a 2-h monocular deprivation, in children with anisometropic amblyopia. In this study, we assess whether the visual acuity improvement of the amblyopic eye measured after 2 months of occlusion therapy could be predicted by this plasticity.

Methods

Seven children (6.86 ± 1.46 years old; SD) with anisometropic amblyopia participated in this study. All patients were newly diagnosed and had no treatment history before participating in our study. They finished 2 months of refractive adaptation and then received a 4-h daily fellow eye patching therapy with an opaque patch for a 2-month period. Best-corrected visual acuity of the amblyopic eye was measured before and after the patching therapy. The homeostatic plasticity was assessed by measuring the temporary shift of perceptual eye dominance from 2-h occlusion of the amblyopic eye before treatment. A binocular phase combination paradigm was used for this study.

Results

We found that there was no significant correlation between the temporary shift of perceptual eye dominance observed after 2-h occlusion of the amblyopic eye and the improvement in visual acuity in the amblyopic eye from 2 months of classical patching therapy. This result, although in disagreements with the conclusions of Lunghi et al. involving the short-term patching of the amblyopic eye, is in fact consistent with a reanalysis of Lunghi and colleagues’ data.

Conclusion

The short-term changes in perceptual eye dominance as a result of short-term monocular deprivation do not provide an index of cortical plasticity in the general sense such that they are able to predict acuity outcomes from longer-term classical patching.

Short-term monocular deprivation reduces inter-ocular suppression of the deprived eye

The adult visual system was traditionally thought to be relatively hard-wired, but recent studies have challenged this view by demonstrating plasticity following short-term monocular deprivation. Depriving one eye of spatial information for 2-3 h increased subsequent sensory dominance of that eye. However, the mechanism underlying this phenomenon is unclear. The present study sought to address this issue and determine the consequences of short-term monocular deprivation on inter-ocular suppression of each eye. Sensory eye dominance was examined before and after depriving an eye of all input using an opaque patch for 2.5 h, in six adult participants with normal binocular vision. We used a percept tracking task during binocular rivalry (BR) to assess the relative eye dominance, and an objective probe detection task under continuous flash suppression (CFS) to quantify each eye's susceptibility to inter-ocular suppression. The monocular contrast increment threshold of each eye was also measured using the probe task to ascertain if the altered eye dominance is accompanied by changes in monocular perception. Our BR results replicated previous findings of a shift of relative dominance towards the eye that has been deprived of form information. More crucially, using CFS we demonstrated reduced inter-ocular suppression of the deprived eye with no complementary changes in the other eye, and no monocular changes in increment threshold. These findings imply that short-term monocular deprivation alters binocular interactions. The differential effect on inter-ocular suppression between eyes may have important implications for the use of patching as a therapy to recover visual function in amblyopia.

Natural-scene-based Steady-state Visual Evoked Potentials Reveal Effects of Short-term Monocular Deprivation

Ocular dominance plasticity beyond the critical period has been demonstrated in adult humans in recent investigations of short-term monocular deprivation (MD). To our knowledge, all previous research adopted non-natural synthetic stimuli in testing perceptual ocular dominance before and after the MD. However, it is recognized that complex natural stimuli may engage cortical mechanisms substantially different from simple synthetic stimuli. Therefore, it remains largely unknown whether reshaping of ocular dominance following MD could be observed during perception of natural scene stimuli without conspicuous interocular competition. Here we used the steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) technique to measure the ocular-specific neural effects of MD with natural scene stimuli where the two eyes' images were tagged with different frequencies. Two hours of MD boosted the neural gain for the deprived eye. During the course of MD, the SSVEP amplitude ratio for the deprived eye compared to the non-deprived eye increased significantly over time, indicating a progressive increase of neural gain for the deprived eye. These findings demonstrate that the effects of short-term MD can manifest when viewing natural scenes, providing a natural case in support of the homeostatic compensation theory of MD. Our work also indicates that the technique of natural-scene-based SSVEP could be particularly useful for future work exploring the neural dynamics during adaptation to natural stimuli.

Action Video Gaming Does Not Influence Short-Term Ocular Dominance Plasticity in Visually Normal Adults

Action video gaming can promote neural plasticity. Short-term monocular patching drives neural plasticity in the visual system of human adults. For instance, short-term monocular patching of 0.5–5 h briefly enhances the patched eye’s contribution in binocular vision (i.e., short-term ocular dominance plasticity). In this study, we investigate whether action video gaming can influence this plasticity in adults with normal vision. We measured participants’ eye dominance using a binocular phase combination task before and after 2.5 h of monocular patching. Participants were asked to play action video games, watch action video game movies, or play non-action video games during the period of monocular patching. We found that participants’ change of ocular dominance after monocular patching was not significantly different either for playing action video games versus watching action video game movies (Comparison 1) or for playing action video games versus playing non-action video games (Comparison 2). These results suggest that action video gaming does not either boost or eliminate short-term ocular dominance plasticity, and that the neural site for this type of plasticity might be in the early visual pathway.

Short-Term Deprivation Does Not Influence Monocular or Dichoptic Temporal Synchrony at Low Temporal Frequency

Studies on binocular combination and rivalry show that short-term deprivation strengthens the contribution of the deprived eye in binocular vision. However, whether short-term monocular deprivation affects temporal processing per se is not clear. To address this issue, we conducted a study to investigate the effect of monocular deprivation on dichoptic temporal synchrony. We tested ten adults with normal vision and patched their dominant eye with an opaque patch for 2.5 h. A temporal synchrony paradigm was used to measure if temporal synchrony thresholds change as a result of monocular pattern deprivation. In this paradigm, we displayed two pairs of Gaussian blobs flickering at 1 Hz with either the same or different phased- temporal modulation. In Experiment 1, we obtained the thresholds for detecting temporal asynchrony under dichoptic viewing configurations. We compared the thresholds for temporal synchrony between before and after monocular deprivation and found no significant changes of the interocular synchrony. In Experiment 2, we measured the monocular thresholds for detecting temporal asynchrony. We also found no significant changes of the monocular synchrony of either the patched eye or the unpatched eye. Our findings suggest that short-term monocular deprivation induced-plasticity does not influence monocular or dichoptic temporal synchrony at low temporal frequency.

Temporary monocular occlusion facilitates binocular fusion during rivalry

A few hours of monocular patching temporarily enhances the deprived eye's contribution to binocular vision, constituting a form of adult brain plasticity. Although the mechanism for this plasticity is currently unknown, several imaging studies present evidence that monocular deprivation achieves its effects by changing excitatory-inhibitory balance in the visual cortex. Much of the past work on adult monocular patching utilized binocular rivalry to quantify the patching-induced shift in perceptual eye dominance, extracting periods of exclusive visibility (in which one eye's signal is suppressed from perception) to assess each eye's contribution to binocular vision while overlooking the occurrence of mixed visibility (in which information from both eyes is combined). In this paper, we discuss two experiments to investigate the effects of short-term monocular occlusion on the relative predominance of mixed and exclusive percepts during binocular rivalry. In addition to the known perceptual eye-dominance shift, we hypothesized patching would also increase the perception of mixtures during rivalry due to deprivation-induced changes in excitatory-inhibitory balance. Our data point to two previously unknown effects of monocular deprivation: (a) a significant increase in the overall fraction and median duration of mixed visibility during rivalry that is detectable up to at least an hour after removing the patch and (b) the overall fraction of superimposition; rather than piecemeal, mixed percepts are specifically enhanced after monocular deprivation. In addition to strengthening the contribution of the deprived eye, our results show that temporary monocular patching enhances the visibility of fused binocular percepts, likely the result of attenuated interocular inhibition.

Sensory Eye Dominance: Relationship Between Eye and Brain

Eye dominance refers to the preference to use one eye more than the fellow eye to accomplish a task. However, the dominant eye revealed can be task dependent especially when the tasks are as diverse as instructing the observer to sight a target through a ring, or to report which half-image is perceived more of during binocular rivalry stimulation. Conventionally, the former task is said to reveal motor eye dominance while the latter task reveals sensory eye dominance. While the consensus is that the motor and sensory-dominant eye could be different in some observers, the reason for it is still unclear and has not been much researched. This review mainly focuses on advances made in recent studies of sensory eye dominance. It reviews studies conducted to quantify and relate sensory eye dominance to other visual functions, in particular to stereopsis, as well as studies conducted to explore its plasticity. It is recognized that sensory eye dominance in observers with clinically normal vision shares some similarity with amblyopia at least at the behavioral level, in that both exhibit an imbalance of interocular inhibition. Furthermore, sensory eye dominance is probably manifested at multiple sites along the visual pathway, perhaps including the level of ocular dominance columns. But future studies with high-resolution brain imaging approaches are required to confirm this speculation in the human visual system.

Contribution of Short-Time Occlusion of the Amblyopic Eye to a Passive Dichoptic Video Treatment for Amblyopia beyond the Critical Period

Dichoptic movie viewing has been shown to significantly improve visual acuity in amblyopia in children. Moreover, short-term occlusion of the amblyopic eye can transiently increase its contribution to binocular fusion in adults. In this study, we first asked whether dichoptic movie viewing could improve the visual function of amblyopic subjects beyond the critical period. Secondly, we tested if this effect could be enhanced by short-term monocular occlusion of the amblyopic eye. 17 subjects presenting stable functional amblyopia participated in this study. 10 subjects followed 6 sessions of 1.5 hour of dichoptic movie viewing (nonpatched group), and 7 subjects, prior to each of these sessions, had to wear an occluding patch over the amblyopic eye for two hours (patched group). Best-corrected visual acuity, monocular contrast sensitivity, interocular balance, and stereoacuity were measured before and after the training. For the nonpatched group, mean amblyopic eye visual acuity significantly improved from 0.54 to 0.46 logMAR (p < 0.05). For the patched group, mean amblyopic eye visual acuity significantly improved from 0.62 to 0.43 logMAR (p < 0.05). Stereoacuity improved significantly when the data of both groups were combined. No significant improvement was observed for the other visual functions tested. Our training procedure combines modern video technologies and recent fundamental findings in human plasticity: (i) long-term plasticity induced by dichoptic movie viewing and (ii) short-term adaptation induced by temporary monocular occlusion. This passive dichoptic movie training approach is shown to significantly improve visual acuity of subjects beyond the critical period. The addition of a short-term monocular occlusion to the dichoptic training shows promising trends but was not significant for the sample size used here. The passive movie approach combined with interocular contrast balancing even over such a short period as 2 weeks has potential as a clinical therapy to treat amblyopia in older children and adults.

Visual plasticity and exercise revisited: No evidence for a "cycling lane"

Experiments using enriched environments have shown that physical exercise modulates visual plasticity in rodents. A recent study (Lunghi & Sale, 2015) investigated whether exercise also affects visual plasticity in adult humans. The plastic effect they measured was the shift in ocular dominance caused by 2 hr of monocular deprivation (e.g., by an eye patch). They used a binocular rivalry task to measure this shift. They found that the magnitude of the shift was increased by exercise during the deprivation period. This effect of exercise was later disputed by a study that used a different behavioral task (Zhou, Reynaud, & Hess, 2017). Our goal was to determine whether the difference in task was responsible for that study's failure to find an exercise effect. We set out to replicate Lunghi and Sale (2015). We measured ocular dominance with a rivalry task before and after 2 hr of deprivation. We measured data from two conditions in 30 subjects. On two separate days, they either performed exercise or rested during the deprivation period. Contrary to the previous study, we find no significant effect of exercise. We hypothesize that exercise may affect rivalry dynamics in a way that interacts with the measurement of the deprivation effect.

Cholinergic Potentiation Alters Perceptual Eye Dominance Plasticity Induced by a Few Hours of Monocular Patching in Adults

A few hours of monocular deprivation with a diffuser eye patch temporarily strengthens the contribution of the deprived eye to binocular vision. This shift in favor of the deprived eye is characterized as a form of adult visual plasticity. Studies in animal and human models suggest that neuromodulators can enhance adult brain plasticity in general. Specifically, acetylcholine has been shown to improve certain aspects of visual function and plasticity in adulthood. We investigated whether a single administration of donepezil (a cholinesterase inhibitor) could further augment the temporary shift in perceptual eye dominance that occurs after 2 h of monocular patching. Twelve healthy adults completed two experimental sessions while taking either donepezil (5 mg, oral) or a placebo (lactose) pill. We measured perceptual eye dominance using a binocular phase combination task before and after 2 h of monocular deprivation with a diffuser eye patch. Participants in both groups demonstrated a significant shift in favor of the patched eye after monocular deprivation, however our results indicate that donepezil significantly reduces the magnitude and duration of the shift. We also investigated the possibility that donepezil reduces the amount of time needed to observe a shift in perceptual eye dominance relative to placebo control. For this experiment, seven subjects completed two sessions where we reduced the duration of deprivation to 1 h. Donepezil reduces the magnitude and duration of the patching-induced shift in perceptual eye dominance in this experiment as well. To verify whether the effects we observed using the binocular phase combination task were also observable in a different measure of sensory eye dominance, six subjects completed an identical experiment using a binocular rivalry task. These results also indicate that cholinergic enhancement impedes the shift that results from short-term deprivation. In summary, our study demonstrates that enhanced cholinergic potentiation interferes with the consolidation of the perceptual eye dominance plasticity induced by several hours of monocular deprivation.

The shift in ocular dominance from short-term monocular deprivation exhibits no dependence on duration of deprivation

Deprivation of visual information from one eye for a 120-minute period in normal adults results in a temporary strengthening of the patched eye's contribution to binocular vision. This plasticity for ocular dominance in adults has been demonstrated by binocular rivalry as well as binocular fusion tasks. Here, we investigate how its dynamics depend on the duration of the monocular deprivation. Using a binocular combination task, we measure the magnitude and recovery of ocular dominance change after durations of monocular deprivation ranging from 15 to 300 minutes. Surprisingly, our results show that the dynamics are of an all-or-none form. There was virtually no significant dependence on the duration of the initial deprivation.

Chromatic and achromatic monocular deprivation produce separable changes of eye dominance in adults

Temporarily depriving one eye of its input, in whole or in part, results in a transient shift in eye dominance in human adults, with the patched eye becoming stronger and the unpatched eye weaker. However, little is known about the role of colour contrast in these behavioural changes. Here, we first show that the changes in eye dominance and contrast sensitivity induced by monocular eye patching affect colour and achromatic contrast sensitivity equally. We next use dichoptic movies, customized and filtered to stimulate the two eyes differentially. We show that a strong imbalance in achromatic contrast between the eyes, with no colour content, also produces similar, unselective shifts in eye dominance for both colour and achromatic contrast sensitivity. Interestingly, if this achromatic imbalance is paired with similar colour contrast in both eyes, the shift in eye dominance is selective, affecting achromatic but not chromatic contrast sensitivity and revealing a dissociation in eye dominance for colour and achromatic image content. On the other hand, a strong imbalance in chromatic contrast between the eyes, with no achromatic content, produces small, unselective changes in eye dominance, but if paired with similar achromatic contrast in both eyes, no changes occur. We conclude that perceptual changes in eye dominance are strongly driven by interocular imbalances in achromatic contrast, with colour contrast having a significant counter balancing effect. In the short term, eyes can have different dominances for achromatic and chromatic contrast, suggesting separate pathways at the site of these neuroplastic changes.

The mechanism of short-term monocular deprivation is not simple: separate effects on parallel and cross-oriented dichoptic masking

Short-term deprivation of the input to one eye increases the strength of its influence on visual perception. This effect was first demonstrated using a binocular rivalry task. Incompatible stimuli are shown to the two eyes, and their competition for perceptual dominance is then measured. Further studies used a combination task, which measures the contribution of each eye to a fused percept. Both tasks show an effect of deprivation, but there have been inconsistencies between them. This suggests that the deprivation causes multiple effects. We used dichoptic masking to explore this possibility. We measured the contrast threshold for detecting a grating stimulus presented to the target eye. Thresholds were elevated when a parallel or cross-oriented grating mask was presented to the other eye. This masking effect was reduced by depriving the target eye for 150 minutes. We tested fourteen subjects with normal vision, and found individual differences in the magnitude of this reduction. Comparing the reduction found in each subject between the two masks (parallel vs. cross-oriented), we found no correlation. This indicates that there is not a single underlying effect of short-term monocular deprivation. Instead there are separate effects which can have different dependencies, and be probed by different tasks.