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Nádvorníková J, Pitthard V, Kurka O, Kučera L, Barták P. Egg vs. Oil in the Cookbook of Plasters: Differentiation of Lipid Binders in Wall Paintings Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Principal Component Analysis. Molecules 2024; 29:1520. [PMID: 38611799 PMCID: PMC11013410 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29071520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Wall paintings are integral to cultural heritage and offer rich insights into historical and religious beliefs. There exist various wall painting techniques that pose challenges in binder and pigment identification, especially in the case of egg/oil-based binders. GC-MS identification of lipidic binders relies routinely on parameters like the ratios of fatty acids within the plaster. However, the reliability of these ratios for binder identification is severely limited, as demonstrated in this manuscript. Therefore, a more reliable tool for effective differentiation between egg and oil binders based on a combination of diagnostic values, specific markers (cholesterol oxidation products), and PCA is presented in this study. Reference samples of wall paintings with egg and linseed oil binders with six different pigments were subjected to modern artificial ageing methods and subsequently analysed using two GC-MS instruments. A statistically significant difference (at a 95% confidence level) between the egg and oil binders and between the results from two GC-MS instruments was observed. These discrepancies between the results from the two GC-MS instruments are likely attributed to the heterogeneity of the samples with egg and oil binders. This study highlights the complexities in identifying wall painting binders and the need for innovative and revised analytical methods in conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Nádvorníková
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 17. Listopadu 12, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (O.K.); (L.K.); (P.B.)
| | - Václav Pitthard
- Conservation Science Department, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Burgring 5, 1010 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Ondřej Kurka
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 17. Listopadu 12, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (O.K.); (L.K.); (P.B.)
| | - Lukáš Kučera
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 17. Listopadu 12, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (O.K.); (L.K.); (P.B.)
| | - Petr Barták
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 17. Listopadu 12, 779 00 Olomouc, Czech Republic; (O.K.); (L.K.); (P.B.)
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Buckley S, Hardy K, Hallgren F, Kubiak-Martens L, Miliauskienė Ž, Sheridan A, Sobkowiak-Tabaka I, Subirà ME. Human consumption of seaweed and freshwater aquatic plants in ancient Europe. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6192. [PMID: 37848451 PMCID: PMC10582258 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41671-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
During the Mesolithic in Europe, there is widespread evidence for an increase in exploitation of aquatic resources. In contrast, the subsequent Neolithic is characterised by the spread of farming, land ownership, and full sedentism, which lead to the perception of marine resources subsequently representing marginal or famine food or being abandoned altogether even at the furthermost coastal limits of Europe. Here, we examine biomarkers extracted from human dental calculus, using sequential thermal desorption- and pyrolysis-GCMS, to report direct evidence for widespread consumption of seaweed and submerged aquatic and freshwater plants across Europe. Notably, evidence of consumption of these resources extends through the Neolithic transition to farming and into the Early Middle Ages, suggesting that these resources, now rarely eaten in Europe, only became marginal much more recently. Understanding ancient foodstuffs is crucial to reconstructing the past, while a better knowledge of local, forgotten resources is likewise important today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Buckley
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, Kings Manor, Exhibition Square, York, YO1 7EP, UK.
| | - Karen Hardy
- Department of Archaeology, University of Glasgow, Molema Building, Lilybank Gardens, Glasgow, G12 8RZ, UK.
| | - Fredrik Hallgren
- The Cultural Heritage Foundation, Stiftelsen Kulturmiljövård, Pilgatan 8D, 721 30, Västerås, Sweden
| | | | - Žydrūnė Miliauskienė
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Anthropology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Alison Sheridan
- Department of Scottish History and Archaeology, National Museums Scotland, Chambers Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1JF, UK
| | - Iwona Sobkowiak-Tabaka
- Faculty of Archaeology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 7, 61-614, Poznań, Poland
| | - Maria Eulalia Subirà
- GREAB, Unitat d'Antropologia Biològica, Departament de Biologia Animal, Biologia Vegetal i Ecologia. Facultat de Biociències. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Huber B, Hammann S, Loeben CE, Jha DK, Vassão DG, Larsen T, Spengler RN, Fuller DQ, Roberts P, Devièse T, Boivin N. Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12477. [PMID: 37652925 PMCID: PMC10471619 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39393-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC-MS, HT-GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Huber
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany.
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - S Hammann
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - C E Loeben
- Egyptian and Islamic Collections, Museum August Kestner, Hannover, Germany
| | - D K Jha
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - D G Vassão
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - T Larsen
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - R N Spengler
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- Domestication and Anthropogenic Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - D Q Fuller
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - P Roberts
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- isoTROPIC Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - T Devièse
- Centre Européen de Recherche et d'Enseignement des Géosciences de l'Environnement (CEREGE), Aix Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - N Boivin
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany.
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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D'Agostino A, Di Marco G, Marvelli S, Marchesini M, Rizzoli E, Rolfo MF, Canini A, Gismondi A. Neolithic dental calculi provide evidence for environmental proxies and consumption of wild edible fruits and herbs in central Apennines. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1384. [PMID: 36536113 PMCID: PMC9763411 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04354-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Looking for a biological fingerprint relative to new aspects of the relationship between humans and natural environment during prehistoric times is challenging. Although many issues still need to be addressed in terms of authentication and identification, microparticles hidden in ancient dental calculus can provide interesting information for bridging this gap of knowledge. Here, we show evidence about the role of edible plants for the early Neolithic individuals in the central Apennines of the Italian peninsula and relative cultural landscape. Dental calculi from human and animal specimens exhumed at Grotta Mora Cavorso (Lazio), one of the largest prehistoric burial deposits, have returned an archaeobotanical record made up of several types of palaeoecological proxies. The organic fraction of this matrix was investigated by a multidisciplinary approach, whose novelty consisted in the application of next generation sequencing to ancient plant DNA fragments, specifically codifying for maturase K barcode gene. Panicoideae and Triticeae starches, together with genetic indicators of Rosaceae fruits, figs, and Lamiaceae herbs, suggested subsistence practices most likely still based on wild plant resources. On the other hand, pollen, and non-pollen palynomorphs allowed us to outline a general vegetational framework dominated by woodland patches alternated with meadows, where semi-permanent settlements could have been established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia D'Agostino
- PhD Program in Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Di Marco
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Marvelli
- Laboratorio di Palinologia e Archeobotanica-C.A.A. Giorgio Nicoli, San Giovanni in Persiceto, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Marchesini
- Laboratorio di Palinologia e Archeobotanica-C.A.A. Giorgio Nicoli, San Giovanni in Persiceto, Bologna, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Rizzoli
- Laboratorio di Palinologia e Archeobotanica-C.A.A. Giorgio Nicoli, San Giovanni in Persiceto, Bologna, Italy
| | - Mario Federico Rolfo
- Department of History, Culture and Society, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Canini
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Angelo Gismondi
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy.
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Found in the Folds: A Rediscovery of Ancient Egyptian Pleated Textiles and the Analysis of Carbohydrate Coatings. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27134103. [PMID: 35807349 PMCID: PMC9268585 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27134103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Charles T. Currelly, first director of the Royal Ontario Museum, participated in excavations of the tomb of King Nebhepetre, now known as Mentuhotep II, (Dynasty XI) in Deir el-Bahri, Egypt in 1906. He brought to Canada many objects from the excavations, and objects that he purchased while in Egypt; these formed the initial collection of the museum. Among the objects were seven fragments of fine linen cloth with intricate pleat patterns. Recently, the cloths became the subject of a study to learn how they had retained their pleats for 4000 years. Samples were examined and analysed using polarised light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy-electron dispersive X-ray spectrometry, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Three of the cloths were likely fragments of clothing re-purposed as bandages and were found to be saturated in mummification balms composed of Pinaceae resin, Pistacia resin, and an essential oil characterised by a high abundance of cedrol, possibly originating from a juniper species. All seven of the cloths were found to have traces of polysaccharides from two probable sources: an arabinogalactan gum such as gum arabic or a fruit gum, and a polyglucoside, possibly starch.
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Buckley S, Power RC, Andreadaki-Vlazaki M, Akar M, Becher J, Belser M, Cafisso S, Eisenmann S, Fletcher J, Francken M, Hallager B, Harvati K, Ingman T, Kataki E, Maran J, Martin MAS, McGeorge PJP, Milevski I, Papadimitriou A, Protopapadaki E, Salazar-García DC, Schmidt-Schultz T, Schuenemann VJ, Shafiq R, Stuijts I, Yegorov D, Yener KA, Schultz M, Spiteri C, Stockhammer PW. Archaeometric evidence for the earliest exploitation of lignite from the bronze age Eastern Mediterranean. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24185. [PMID: 34921192 PMCID: PMC8683508 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-03544-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper presents the earliest evidence for the exploitation of lignite (brown coal) in Europe and sheds new light on the use of combustion fuel sources in the 2nd millennium BCE Eastern Mediterranean. We applied Thermal Desorption/Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Polarizing Microscopy to the dental calculus of 67 individuals and we identified clear evidence for combustion markers embedded within this calculus. In contrast to the scant evidence for combustion markers within the calculus samples from Egypt, all other individuals show the inhalation of smoke from fires burning wood identified as Pinaceae, in addition to hardwood, such as oak and olive, and/or dung. Importantly, individuals from the Palatial Period at the Mycenaean citadel of Tiryns and the Cretan harbour site of Chania also show the inhalation of fire-smoke from lignite, consistent with the chemical signature of sources in the northwestern Peloponnese and Western Crete respectively. This first evidence for lignite exploitation was likely connected to and at the same time enabled Late Bronze Age Aegean metal and pottery production, significantly by both male and female individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Buckley
- Institute for Prehistory, Early History and Medieval Archaeology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070, Tübingen, Germany.
- Department of Archaeology, BioArCh, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK.
| | - Robert C Power
- Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Schellingstraße 12, 80799, Munich, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Murat Akar
- Archaeology Department, Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya, Hatay, Turkey
| | - Julia Becher
- Institute for Prehistory, Early History and Medieval Archaeology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Archaeology, BioArCh, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Matthias Belser
- Institute for Prehistory, Early History and Medieval Archaeology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Sara Cafisso
- Institute for Prehistory, Early History and Medieval Archaeology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Stefanie Eisenmann
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Joann Fletcher
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, York, YO1 7EP, UK
| | - Michael Francken
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Rümelinstrasse 23, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Katerina Harvati
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Rümelinstrasse 23, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tara Ingman
- Koç University Research Center for Anatolian Civilizations (ANAMED), Istanbul, 34421, Turkey
| | - Efthymia Kataki
- Ephorate of Antiquities of Chania, Stoa Vardinogianni, 73100, Chania, Greece
| | - Joseph Maran
- Institute for Prehistory, Protohistory and Near Eastern Archaeology, University of Heidelberg, Sandgasse 7, 69117, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Mario A S Martin
- Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, 69978, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, 3498838, Haifa, Israel
| | | | | | | | | | - Domingo C Salazar-García
- IKERBASQUE-Basque Foundation for Science, Grupo de Investigación en Prehistoria IT-1223-19 (UPV-EHU), 01006, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
- Departament de Prehistòria, Arqueologia I Història Antiga, University of València, 46010, València, Spain
| | - Tyede Schmidt-Schultz
- Institute of Anatomy and Embryology, University Medical School Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Verena J Schuenemann
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Rümelinstrasse 23, 72070, Tübingen, Germany
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rula Shafiq
- Anthropology Department, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ingelise Stuijts
- The Discovery Programme, 6 Mount Street Lower, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - K Aslιhan Yener
- Institute for the Study of the Ancient World (ISAW), New York University, New York, USA
| | - Michael Schultz
- Institute of Anatomy and Embryology, University Medical School Göttingen, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, 31141, Hildesheim, Germany
| | - Cynthianne Spiteri
- Institute for Prehistory, Early History and Medieval Archaeology, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Burgsteige 11, 72070, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Philipp W Stockhammer
- Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich, Schellingstraße 12, 80799, Munich, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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La Nasa J, Modugno F, Degano I. Liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry for the analysis of acylglycerols in art and archeology. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2021; 40:381-407. [PMID: 32643188 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Lipid characterization in art and archeology, together with the study of lipid degradation processes, is an important research area in heritage science. Lipid-based materials have been used as food since ancient times, but also employed as illuminants and as ingredients in cosmetic, ritual, and pharmaceutical preparations. Both animal and plant lipids have also been processed to produce materials used in art and crafts, such as paint binders, varnishes, waterproofing agents, and coatings. Identifying the origin of the lipid materials is challenging when they are found in association with artistic historical objects. This is due to the inherent complex composition of lipids, their widespread occurrence, and the chemical alterations induced by ageing. The most common approach for lipid characterization in heritage objects entails profiling fatty acids by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry after saponification or transesterification. New developments in high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) for the characterization of acylglycerols, together with more efficient sample treatments, have fostered the introduction of liquid chromatography for characterizing the lipid profile in heritage objects. This review reports the latest developments and applications of HPLC-MS for the characterization of lipid materials in the field of heritage science. We describe the various approaches for sample pretreatment and highlight the advantages and limitations of HPLC-MS in the analysis of paint and archeological samples. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacopo La Nasa
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, Pisa, 56124, Italy
| | - Francesca Modugno
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, Pisa, 56124, Italy
| | - Ilaria Degano
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, Pisa, 56124, Italy
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Environmental implications and evidence of natural products from dental calculi of a Neolithic-Chalcolithic community (central Italy). Sci Rep 2021; 11:10665. [PMID: 34021220 PMCID: PMC8140145 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89999-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In this contribution, we investigated the role of plants in the prehistoric community of Casale del Dolce (Anagni, FR, central Italy), through microparticles recovered from dental calculus. The finding of a great amount of pollen types, even in form of compact lumps, could indicate use of natural substances, such as honeybee products and/or conifer resins. This plant-microremain record also suggested environmental implications relative to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period. Additionally, the stability of the tartar microenvironment had preserved starches and other microparticles, such as one epidermal trichome, a sporangium, and fragments of plant tissue, rarely detected in ancient dental calculus. The detection of secondary metabolites in the ancient matrix confirmed the familiarity of this community with plant resources. All these data supply various interesting food for thought and expand the knowledge about the potential of dental calculus in archaeological and archaeobotanical fields with a special focus on palaeoecology.
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Lebedev AT, Polyakova OV, Artaev VB, Mednikova MB, Anokhina EA. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry with complementary ionization methods in the study of 5000-year-old mummy. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2021; 35:e9058. [PMID: 33496359 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Mummification is one of the defining customs of ancient Egypt. The nuances of the embalming procedure and the composition of the embalming mixtures have attracted the attention of scientists and laypeople for a long time. Modern analytical tools make mummy studies more efficient. METHODS Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (GCxGC/HRMS) with complementary ionization methods (electron ionization, positive chemical ionization, and electron capture negative ionization [ECNI]) with a Pegasus GC-HRT+4D instrument was used to identify embalming components in the mummy from the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts acquired in 1913 in London at the de Rustafjaell sale. The mummy dates back to the late Predynastic period (direct accelerator mass spectrometry-dating 3356-3098 bc), being one of the oldest in the world. RESULTS The results showed the complexity of the embalming mixtures that were already in use 5000 years ago. Several hundred organic compounds were identified in the mummy samples. Various types of hydrocarbons (triterpanes, steranes, isoprenoid, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) prove the presence of petroleum products. Iodinated compounds detected using ECNI define oils of marine origin, whereas esters of palmitic acid indicate the use of beeswax. The nature of the discovered components of conifer tar proves that the preliminary processing of conifer resins involved heating. GCxGC/HRMS also allowed a number of modern contaminants (phthalates, organophosphates, and even DDT) to be identified. CONCLUSIONS Application of a powerful GCxGC/HRMS technique with complementary ionization methods allowed significant widening of the range of organic compounds used for mummification that could be identified. The complexity of the embalming mixtures supports the hypothesis of the high social status of the child made on the basis of the preliminary study of the mummy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert T Lebedev
- Organic Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga V Polyakova
- Organic Chemistry Department, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | | | - Maria B Mednikova
- Department of Theory and Methods, Institute of Archaeology RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Eugenia A Anokhina
- Department of the Ancient Orient, The Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow, Russia
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D’Agostino A, Canini A, Di Marco G, Nigro L, Spagnoli F, Gismondi A. Investigating Plant Micro-Remains Embedded in Dental Calculus of the Phoenician Inhabitants of Motya (Sicily, Italy). PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9101395. [PMID: 33092237 PMCID: PMC7590007 DOI: 10.3390/plants9101395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Plant records reveal remarkable evidence about past environments and human cultures. Exploiting dental calculus analysis and using a combined approach of microscopy and gas chromatography mass spectrometry, our research outlines dietary ecology and phytomedicinal practices of the ancient community of Motya (Sicily, eight to sixth century BC), one of the most important Phoenician settlements in the Mediterranean basin. Micro-remains suggest use or consumption of Triticeae cereals, and animal-derived sources (e.g., milk and aquatic birds). Markers of grape (or wine), herbs, and rhizomes, endemic of Mediterranean latitudes and the East, provide insight into the subsistence of this colony, in terms of foodstuffs and phytotherapeutic products. The application of resins and wood of Gymnosperms for social and cultural purposes is hypothesized through the identification of Pinaceae secondary metabolites and pollen grains. The information hidden in dental calculus discloses the strong human-plant interaction in Motya’s Phoenician community, in terms of cultural traditions and land use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia D’Agostino
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.); (G.D.M.)
| | - Antonella Canini
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.); (G.D.M.)
- Correspondence: (A.C.); (A.G.); Tel.: +39-06-7259-4330 (A.C.); +39-06-7259-4344 (A.G.); Fax: +39-06-2023-500 (A.C. & A.G.)
| | - Gabriele Di Marco
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.); (G.D.M.)
| | - Lorenzo Nigro
- Department Italian Institute of Oriental Studies—ISO, Sapienza University, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (L.N.); (F.S.)
| | - Federica Spagnoli
- Department Italian Institute of Oriental Studies—ISO, Sapienza University, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; (L.N.); (F.S.)
| | - Angelo Gismondi
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy; (A.D.); (G.D.M.)
- Correspondence: (A.C.); (A.G.); Tel.: +39-06-7259-4330 (A.C.); +39-06-7259-4344 (A.G.); Fax: +39-06-2023-500 (A.C. & A.G.)
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11
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Gismondi A, Baldoni M, Gnes M, Scorrano G, D’Agostino A, Di Marco G, Calabria G, Petrucci M, Müldner G, Von Tersch M, Nardi A, Enei F, Canini A, Rickards O, Alexander M, Martínez-Labarga C. A multidisciplinary approach for investigating dietary and medicinal habits of the Medieval population of Santa Severa (7th-15th centuries, Rome, Italy). PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227433. [PMID: 31990948 PMCID: PMC6986732 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
A multidisciplinary approach, combining stable isotope analysis from bone proteins and investigations on dental calculus using DNA analysis, light microscopy, and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry, was applied to reconstruct dietary and medicinal habits of the individuals recovered in the cemetery of the Castle of Santa Severa (7th-15th centuries CE; Rome, Italy). Stable isotope analysis was performed on 120 humans, 41 faunal specimens and 8 charred seeds. Dental calculus analyses were carried out on 94 samples. Overall, isotope data indicated an omnivorous diet based on C3-terrestrial protein, although some individuals possessed carbon values indicative of C4 plant consumption. In terms of animal protein, the diet was probably based on cattle, sheep, pig and chicken products, as witnessed by the archaeozoological findings. Evidence from calculus suggested the consumption of C3 cereals, Fabaceae, Fagaceae, milk and dairy products. Secondary metabolites of herbs and wine were also detected. The detection of marine fish ancient DNA, as well as of ω3 fatty acids in calculus, hypothesized the consumption of marine foodstuffs for this coastal population, despite the lack of a clear marine isotopic signal and the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids in plant tissues. Moreover, the knowledge of ethnopharmacological tradition and the application of medicinal plants (e.g. Punica granatum L., Ephedra sp. L.) were also identified. The detection of artemisinin, known to have antimalarial properties, led to hypothesize the presence of malaria in the area. Altogether, the combined application of microscopy and biomolecular techniques provided an innovative reconstruction of Medieval lifeways in Central Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Gismondi
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Marica Baldoni
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Micaela Gnes
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Scorrano
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessia D’Agostino
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Di Marco
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Giulietta Calabria
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Petrucci
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Gundula Müldner
- Department of Archaeology, University of Reading, Reading, England, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Von Tersch
- Department of Archaeology, BioArCh, University of York, York, England, United Kingdom
| | - Alessandra Nardi
- Department of Mathematics, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Flavio Enei
- Museo Civico di Santa Marinella “Museo del Mare e della Navigazione Antica”, Castello di Santa Severa (Roma–Italia)
| | - Antonella Canini
- Laboratory of Botany, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Olga Rickards
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
| | - Michelle Alexander
- Department of Archaeology, BioArCh, University of York, York, England, United Kingdom
| | - Cristina Martínez-Labarga
- Centro di Antropologia Molecolare per lo Studio del DNA Antico, Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail:
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12
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D’Agostino A, Gismondi A, Di Marco G, Lo Castro M, Olevano R, Cinti T, Leonardi D, Canini A. Lifestyle of a Roman Imperial community: ethnobotanical evidence from dental calculus of the Ager Curensis inhabitants. JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE 2019; 15:62. [PMID: 31801550 PMCID: PMC6894264 DOI: 10.1186/s13002-019-0334-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The analysis of ancient calcified dental plaque is a powerful archaeobotanical method to elucidate the key role of the plants in human history. METHODS In this research, by applying both optic microscopy and gas chromatography mass spectrometry on this matrix, a detailed qualitative investigation for reconstructing the lifestyle of a Roman imperial community of the Ager Curensis (Sabina Tiberina, Central Italy) was performed. RESULTS The detection of animal micro-remains and molecules (e.g., hairs, feather barbules, markers of dairy products), starch granules of several cereals and legumes, pollen (e.g., Juglans regia L., Hedera sp. L.) and other plant micro-debris (e.g., trichome of Olea sp., hemp fibers), and phytochemicals (e.g., Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae herbs, Ferula sp., Trigonella foenum-graecum L., wine, and Humulus lupulus L.) in the dental calculus sample demonstrated that plant-derived foods were regularly consumed together with animal resources. CONCLUSIONS This nutritional plan, consistent with the information reported in ancient written texts, suggested that the studied population based its own subsistence on both agriculture and husbandry, probably also including beekeeping and hunting activities. All together, these results represent proofs for the comprehension of food habits, phytotherapeutic practices, and cultural traditions of one of the first Roman settlements in the Sabina Tiberina area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia D’Agostino
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Angelo Gismondi
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Di Marco
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Lo Castro
- Società Cooperativa “Il Bètilo” - Servizi per i Beni Culturali a r. l., Via Remigio De Paolis 15, 00030 San Vito Romano (RM), Italy
| | - Rosaria Olevano
- Società Cooperativa “Il Bètilo” - Servizi per i Beni Culturali a r. l., Via Remigio De Paolis 15, 00030 San Vito Romano (RM), Italy
| | - Tiziano Cinti
- Società Cooperativa “Il Bètilo” - Servizi per i Beni Culturali a r. l., Via Remigio De Paolis 15, 00030 San Vito Romano (RM), Italy
| | - Donatella Leonardi
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Canini
- Department of Biology, University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
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13
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Wang XS, Chen D, Wang H, Liu L, Huang JF, Duan XM, Yan XX, Luo XG. Mawangdui-Type Ancient Human Cadavers in China and Strategies for Their Long-Term Preservation. Biopreserv Biobank 2019; 17:113-118. [PMID: 30888198 DOI: 10.1089/bio.2019.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ancient human remains may exist as intact cadavers in various forms, including mummies as well as humid or soft corpses. These valuable human depositories have been increasingly investigated with modern molecular biological approaches, delivering breakthrough discoveries in the field of paleoanthropology. Many ancient remains are also preserved in museums for public education of the history of human civilization. The Mawangdui tomb No. 1 cadaver was unearthed in 1972 in Changsha, China, and is a well-preserved humid-type corpse of a deceased woman who lived in the Western Han Dynasty (206BC-24AD). During the past few decades, a number of other similar cadavers have been discovered in China. The Mawangdui cadaver thus appears to represent an archetype of the humid corpses that are commonly unearthed from buried coffins, but show a great extent of anatomical and histological integrity at the time of excavation. Long-term protection of these cadavers is important with regard to scientific investigation and heritage conservation, while challenges exist to develop effective preservation protocols. In this perspective article, we describe the overall features of the humid cadavers found in China, and discuss the factors that potentially contributed to their preservation before excavation. We also introduce the efforts taken for, and experience learned from, postexcavation preservation of the Mawangdui cadaver during the past four decades. Finally, we propose that research into the mechanism governing the breakdown of macromolecules may provide potential solutions for extended protection of these valuable ancient human remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Sheng Wang
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China.,2 Center for Preservation of Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver, Morphological Science Building, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Dan Chen
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China.,2 Center for Preservation of Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver, Morphological Science Building, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Hui Wang
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China.,2 Center for Preservation of Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver, Morphological Science Building, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Liang Liu
- 3 Hunan Museum, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ju-Fang Huang
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China.,2 Center for Preservation of Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver, Morphological Science Building, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | | | - Xiao-Xin Yan
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China.,2 Center for Preservation of Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver, Morphological Science Building, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xue-Gang Luo
- 1 Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China.,2 Center for Preservation of Mawangdui Han Tomb Cadaver, Morphological Science Building, Central South University Xiangya School of Medicine, Changsha, Hunan, China
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14
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Brockbals L, Habicht M, Hajdas I, Galassi FM, Rühli FJ, Kraemer T. Untargeted metabolomics-like screening approach for chemical characterization and differentiation of canopic jar and mummy samples from Ancient Egypt using GC-high resolution MS. Analyst 2018; 143:4503-4512. [DOI: 10.1039/c8an01288a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Canopic jarsvs.mummies: first time use of modern metabolomic techniques to unravel ancient embalming chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lana Brockbals
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology
- Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Michael Habicht
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Irka Hajdas
- Institute of Ion Beam Physics
- ETH Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | | | - Frank J. Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology
- Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine
- University of Zurich
- Zurich
- Switzerland
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15
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Wang J, Simoneit BRT, Sheng G, Chen L, Xu L, Wang X, Wang Y, Sun L. The Potential of Alkyl Amides as Novel Biomarkers and Their Application to Paleocultural Deposits in China. Sci Rep 2017; 7:14667. [PMID: 29116260 PMCID: PMC5677102 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15371-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of alkyl amides was detected and identified in the sedimentary record from an archaeological site at Yuchisi, Mengcheng, Anhui, China. The alkyl amides profiles change abruptly at the depth corresponding to the transition between two prehistoric cultures, which also corresponds to an abrupt change in the fatty acid ratio C18:2/C18:0. The different patterns of variation of the longer and shorter chain alkyl amides at the depth of the cultural transition may reflect differences in their response to external environmental changes, as well as different sources. This is the first study of the stratigraphic variation of alkyl amides in sediments, and their first application to assess paleoenvironmental changes. We suggest that alkyl amides may have potential as new biomarkers in archeological and paleoenvironmental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Global Change and Marine-Atmospheric Chemistry, Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen, 361005, Fujian, China.
- Institute of Polar Environment, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, Anhui, China.
| | - Bernd R T Simoneit
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Guoying Sheng
- Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, Guangdong, China
| | - Liqi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Global Change and Marine-Atmospheric Chemistry, Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen, 361005, Fujian, China
| | - Libin Xu
- Institute of Polar Environment, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, Anhui, China
| | - Xinming Wang
- Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuhong Wang
- NIH Chemical Genomics Center, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Liguang Sun
- Institute of Polar Environment, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, Anhui, China.
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16
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Loynes RD, Charlier P, Froesch P, Houlton TMR, Lallo R, Di Vella G, Bianucci R. Virtopsy shows a high status funerary treatment in an early 18th Dynasty non-royal individual. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2017; 13:302-311. [DOI: 10.1007/s12024-017-9879-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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17
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Hao X, Wu H, Zhao Y, Tong T, Li X, Yang C, Tang Y, Shen X, Liu S, Tong H. Scientific investigation of the lacquered wooden coffin of Xiang Fei excavated from Eastern Royal Tombs of the Qing Dynasty. NEW J CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7nj02128c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The composition, structure, and lacquering craft used to manufacture the coffin of Xiang Fei were analyzed using multiple analytical methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Hao
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine
- Ministry of Education
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
| | - Hao Wu
- Jingzhou Preservation Centre of Cultural Relics
- Jingzhou 434020
- China
| | - Yang Zhao
- Jingzhou Preservation Centre of Cultural Relics
- Jingzhou 434020
- China
| | - Tong Tong
- Centre of Cultural Material Conservation
- The University of Melbourne
- Parkville
- Australia
| | - Xiaoyuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine
- Ministry of Education
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
| | - Cui Yang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine
- Ministry of Education
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
| | - Yun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine
- Ministry of Education
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
| | - Xinyu Shen
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine
- Ministry of Education
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
| | - Shinian Liu
- Electrical Power Research Institute of Guangdong Power Grid Co., Ltd
- Guangdong
- China
| | - Hua Tong
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine
- Ministry of Education
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
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18
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Clark KA, Ikram S, Evershed RP. The significance of petroleum bitumen in ancient Egyptian mummies. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2016; 374:rsta.2016.0229. [PMID: 27644983 PMCID: PMC5031647 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2016.0229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Mummification was practised in ancient Egypt for more than 3000 years, emerging from initial observations of buried bodies preserved by natural desiccation. The use of organic balms (and other funerary practices) was a later introduction necessitated by more humid burial environments, especially tombs. The dark colour of many mummies led to the assumption that petroleum bitumen (or natural asphalt) was ubiquitous in mummification; however, this has been questioned for more than 100 years. We test this by investigating 91 materials comprising balms, tissues and textiles from 39 mummies dating from ca 3200 BC to AD 395. Targeted petroleum bitumen biomarker (steranes and hopanes) analyses by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry selected ion monitoring (GC-MS SIM, m/z 217 and 191) showed no detectable bitumen use before the New Kingdom (ca 1550-1070 BC). However, bitumen was used in 50% of New Kingdom to Late Period mummies, rising to 87% of Ptolemaic/Roman Period mummies. Quantitative determinations using (14)C analyses reveal that even at peak use balms were never more than 45% w/w bitumen. Critically, the dark colour of balms can be simulated by heating/ageing mixtures of fats, resins and beeswax known to be used in balms. The application of black/dark brown balms to bodies was deliberate after the New Kingdom reflecting changing funerary beliefs and shifts in religious ideology.This article is part of the themed issue 'Quantitative mass spectrometry'.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Clark
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
| | - S Ikram
- Department of Egyptology, The American University in Cairo, AUC Avenue, PO Box 74, Tagammu 5, New Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - R P Evershed
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
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19
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Palacios C, Negri G, Salatino A. Esters and other constituents of the foliar cuticular wax of a soybean variety. BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2015.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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An integrated multianalytical approach to the reconstruction of daily activities at the Bronze Age settlement in Peñalosa (Jaén, Spain). Microchem J 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2015.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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21
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Moissidou D, Day J, Shin DH, Bianucci R. Invasive versus Non Invasive Methods Applied to Mummy Research: Will This Controversy Ever Be Solved? BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:192829. [PMID: 26345295 PMCID: PMC4543116 DOI: 10.1155/2015/192829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Advances in the application of non invasive techniques to mummified remains have shed new light on past diseases. The virtual inspection of a corpse, which has almost completely replaced classical autopsy, has proven to be important especially when dealing with valuable museum specimens. In spite of some very rewarding results, there are still many open questions. Non invasive techniques provide information on hard and soft tissue pathologies and allow information to be gleaned concerning mummification practices (e.g., ancient Egyptian artificial mummification). Nevertheless, there are other fields of mummy studies in which the results provided by non invasive techniques are not always self-explanatory. Reliance exclusively upon virtual diagnoses can sometimes lead to inconclusive and misleading interpretations. On the other hand, several types of investigation (e.g., histology, paleomicrobiology, and biochemistry), although minimally invasive, require direct contact with the bodies and, for this reason, are often avoided, particularly by museum curators. Here we present an overview of the non invasive and invasive techniques currently used in mummy studies and propose an approach that might solve these conflicts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despina Moissidou
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Medical School, National Kapodistrian University of Athens, 75 M. Asias Street, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Jasmine Day
- The Ancient Egypt Society of Western Australia Inc., P.O. Box 103, Ballajura, WA 6066, Australia
| | - Dong Hoon Shin
- Division of Paleopathology, Institute of Forensic Science, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Republic of Korea
| | - Raffaella Bianucci
- Department of Public Health and Paediatric Sciences, Legal Medicine Section, University of Turin, Corso Galileo Galilei 22, 10126 Turin, Italy
- Center for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066, Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
- Anthropologie Bioculturelle, Droit, Ethique et Santé, Faculté de Médecine-Nord, Aix-Marseille Université, 15 boulevard Pierre Dramard, 13344 Marseille Cedex 15, France
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22
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Bianucci R, Habicht ME, Buckley S, Fletcher J, Seiler R, Öhrström LM, Vassilika E, Böni T, Rühli FJ. Shedding New Light on the 18th Dynasty Mummies of the Royal Architect Kha and His Spouse Merit. PLoS One 2015. [PMID: 26200778 PMCID: PMC4511739 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The mummies of Kha and his wife Merit were found intact in an undisturbed tomb in western Thebes near the ancient workers’ village of Deir el-Medina. Previous MDCT (this abbreviation needs spelling out) investigations showed that the bodies of Kha and Merit did not undergo classical royal 18th Dynasty artificial mummification, which included removal of the internal organs. It was, therefore, concluded that the retention of the viscera in the body, combined with an absence of canopic jars in the burial chamber, meant the couple underwent a short and shoddy funerary procedure, despite their relative wealth at death. Nevertheless, all internal organs - brain, ocular bulbs/ocular nerves, thoracic and abdominal organs - showed a very good state of preservation, which contradicts the previous interpretation above. In order to better understand the type of mummification used to embalm these bodies, both wrapped mummies were reinvestigated using new generation X-ray imaging and chemical microanalyses Here we provide evidence that both individuals underwent a relatively high quality of mummification, fundamentally contradicting previous understanding. Elucidated “recipes”, whose components had anti-bacterial and anti-insecticidal properties, were used to treat their bodies. The time and effort undoubtedly employed to embalm both Kha and Merit and the use of imported costly resins, notably Pistacia, do not support the previously held view that the two individuals were poorly mummified. Despite a lack of evisceration, the approach clearly allowed their in situ preservation as well as affording a fairly successful mummification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaella Bianucci
- Department of Public Health and Paediatric Sciences, Legal Medicine Section, Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Laboratoire d’Anthropologie bio-culturelle, Droit, Etique & Santé (Adés), Faculté de Médecine de Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Michael E. Habicht
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Roger Seiler
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Lena M. Öhrström
- Department of Radiology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eleni Vassilika
- Fondazione Museo delle Antichità Egizie di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Thomas Böni
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Frank J. Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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23
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Özen AC, Ludwig U, Öhrström LM, Rühli FJ, Bock M. Comparison of ultrashort echo time sequences for MRI of an ancient mummified human hand. Magn Reson Med 2015; 75:701-8. [DOI: 10.1002/mrm.25651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2014] [Revised: 01/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ali Caglar Özen
- Radiology ‐ Medical PhysicsUniversity Medical Center FreiburgFreiburg Germany
| | - Ute Ludwig
- Radiology ‐ Medical PhysicsUniversity Medical Center FreiburgFreiburg Germany
| | - Lena Maria Öhrström
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineMedical Faculty, University of ZürichZürich Switzerland
| | - Frank Jakobus Rühli
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineMedical Faculty, University of ZürichZürich Switzerland
| | - Michael Bock
- Radiology ‐ Medical PhysicsUniversity Medical Center FreiburgFreiburg Germany
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24
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Jones J, Higham TFG, Oldfield R, O'Connor TP, Buckley SA. Evidence for prehistoric origins of Egyptian mummification in late Neolithic burials. PLoS One 2014; 9:e103608. [PMID: 25118605 PMCID: PMC4132097 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional theories on ancient Egyptian mummification postulate that in the prehistoric period (i.e. the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, 5th and 4th millennia B.C.) bodies were naturally desiccated through the action of the hot, dry desert sand. Although molding of the body with resin-impregnated linen is believed to be an early Pharaonic forerunner to more complex processes, scientific evidence for the early use of resins in artificial mummification has until now been limited to isolated occurrences during the late Old Kingdom (c. 2200 B.C.), their use becoming more apparent during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1600 BC). We examined linen wrappings from bodies in securely provenanced tombs (pit graves) in the earliest recorded ancient Egyptian cemeteries at Mostagedda in the Badari region (Upper Egypt). Our investigations of these prehistoric funerary wrappings using a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and thermal desorption/pyrolysis (TD/Py)-GC-MS have identified a pine resin, an aromatic plant extract, a plant gum/sugar, a natural petroleum source, and a plant oil/animal fat in directly AMS-dated funerary wrappings. Predating the earliest scientific evidence by more than a millennium, these embalming agents constitute complex, processed recipes of the same natural products, in similar proportions, as those utilized at the zenith of Pharaonic mummification some 3,000 years later. The antibacterial properties of some of these ingredients and the localized soft-tissue preservation that they would have afforded lead us to conclude that these represent the very beginnings of experimentation that would evolve into the famous mummification practice of the Pharaonic period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Jones
- Department of Ancient History, Faculty of Arts, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas F. G. Higham
- Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Ron Oldfield
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Terry P. O'Connor
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, The Kings Manor, York, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen A. Buckley
- Department of Archaeology, University of York, The Kings Manor, York, United Kingdom
- BioArch, Departments of Archaeology, Biology and Chemistry (S-Block), University of York, York, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Ménager M, Azémard C, Vieillescazes C. Study of Egyptian mummification balms by FT-IR spectroscopy and GC–MS. Microchem J 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2013.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Beránek J, Kozliak E, Kubátová A. Evaluation of sequential solvent and thermal extraction followed by analytical pyrolysis for chemical characterization of carbonaceous particulate matter. J Chromatogr A 2013; 1279:27-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2013.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 01/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Hardy K, Buckley S, Collins MJ, Estalrrich A, Brothwell D, Copeland L, García-Tabernero A, García-Vargas S, Rasilla M, Lalueza-Fox C, Huguet R, Bastir M, Santamaría D, Madella M, Wilson J, Cortés ÁF, Rosas A. Neanderthal medics? Evidence for food, cooking, and medicinal plants entrapped in dental calculus. Naturwissenschaften 2012; 99:617-26. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-012-0942-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Revised: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Molecular and isotopic archaeology: Top grade tools to investigate organic archaeological materials. CR CHIM 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2009.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Abstract
Mummies are human remains with preservation of nonbony tissue. Mummification by natural influences results in so-called natural mummies, whereas mummification induced by active (human) intervention results in so-called artificial mummies, although many cultures practiced burial rites, which to some degree involved both natural and artificial mummification. Since they are so uniquely well-preserved, mummies may give many insights into mortuary practices and burial rites. Specifically, the presence of soft tissues may expand the scope of paleopathological studies. Many recent mummy studies focus on the development and application of nondestructive methods for examining mummies, including radiography, CT-scanning with advanced three-dimensional visualizations, and endoscopic techniques, as well as minimally-destructive chemical, physical, and biological methods for, e.g., stable isotopes, trace metals, and DNA. This article discusses mummification and gives a presentation of various key mummy finds and a brief history of mummy studies. A description of the extant key technologies of natural and medical science that are applied in mummy studies is given; along with a discussion of some of the major results in terms of paleopathology. It is also shown how mummy studies have contributed much to the knowledge of the cultural habits and everyday life of past populations. Finally the impact of mummy studies on analyses of mortuary practices and cultural history is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels Lynnerup
- Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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30
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Kurata S, Ichikawa K. Identification of Small Bits of Natural Leather by Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. BUNSEKI KAGAKU 2008. [DOI: 10.2116/bunsekikagaku.57.563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shoji Kurata
- Criminal Investigation Laboratory, Metropolitan Police Department
| | - Keiko Ichikawa
- Criminal Investigation Laboratory, Metropolitan Police Department
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Copley MS, Bland HA, Rose P, Horton M, Evershed RP. Gas chromatographic, mass spectrometric and stable carbon isotopic investigations of organic residues of plant oils and animal fats employed as illuminants in archaeological lamps from Egypt. Analyst 2005; 130:860-71. [PMID: 15912234 DOI: 10.1039/b500403a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Man's use of illuminants in lamps or as torches to extend the working day and range of environments accessible to him would have been a major technological advance in human civilisation. The most obvious evidence for this in the archaeological record comes from pottery and stone vessels showing sooting due to the use of a wick in conjunction with a lipid-based fuel or illuminant. A wide range of potential fuels would have been exploited depending upon availability and burning requirements. Reported herein are the results of chemical investigations of a number of lamps recovered from excavations of the site of Qasr Ibrim, Egypt. Gas chromatographic, mass spectrometric and stable carbon isotopic analyses of both free (solvent extractable) and 'bound'(released from solvent extracted pottery by base treatment) lipids have revealed a wide range of saturated fatty acids, hydroxy fatty acids and alpha, omega-dicarboxylic acids. Examination of the distributions of compounds and comparisons with the fatty acid compositions of modern plant oils have allowed a range of fats and oils to be recognised. Specific illuminants identified include Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) seed oil (most likely radish oil, Raphanus sativus), castor oil (from Ricinus communis), animal fat, with less diagnostic distributions and delta(13)C values being consistent with low stearic acid plant oils, such as linseed (Linum usitatissimum) or sesame (Sesamum indicum) oils. The identifications of the various oils and fats are supported by parallel investigations of illuminant residues produced by burning various oils in replica pottery lamps. The findings are entirely consistent with the classical writers including Strabo, Pliny and Theophrastrus.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Copley
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, Bristol Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
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Varmuza K, Makristathis A, Schwarzmeier J, Seidler H, Mader RM. Exploration of anthropological specimens by GC-MS and chemometrics. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2005; 24:427-452. [PMID: 15389850 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Anthropological specimens combine a variety of unfavorable characteristics, rendering their evaluation an analytical challenge. Their remarkable status is primarily based on two characteristics: (i) these very rare samples of human origin are testimonies of human history and are, therefore, available only in minute amounts for analytical purposes, and (ii) the analysis of these samples is extremely limited by the decomposition of molecules, which are easily detected in living organisms, such as nucleic acids and proteins, but are subject to rapid post-mortem decay. In this article, we review the methods and results of archaeometry, emphasizing the role of MS combined with chemometrics. Focusing on experimental results for fatty acid profiles, specimens from mummies from different civilizations were compared. Considering in particular the Tyrolean Iceman, the application of chemometric methods to GC-MS data recovers essential information about the preservation and the storage conditions of mummies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kurt Varmuza
- Institute of Chemical Engineering, Laboratory for Chemometrics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria.
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Buckley SA, Clark KA, Evershed RP. Complex organic chemical balms of Pharaonic animal mummies. Nature 2004; 431:294-9. [PMID: 15372029 DOI: 10.1038/nature02849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2004] [Accepted: 07/13/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Millions of votive mummies of mammals, birds and reptiles were produced throughout ancient Egypt, with their popularity increasing during the reign of Amenhotep III (1400 bc) and thereafter. The scale of production has been taken to indicate that relatively little care and expense was involved in their preparation compared with human mummies. The accepted view is that animals were merely wrapped in coarse linen bandages and/or dipped in 'resin' before death. However, as with human mummification there was a range of qualities of treatments, and visual inspection of animal mummies suggests that the procedures used were often as complex as those used in humans (for example, evisceration and elaborate bandaging). Moreover, the ancient Egyptians treated animals with great respect, regarding them both as domestic pets and representatives of the gods; for example, the cat symbolized the goddess Bastet; the hawk, Horus; the ibis, Thoth, and so on. We report here the results of chemical investigations of tissues and wrappings from Pharaonic cat, hawk and ibis mummies using gas chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The analyses reveal the presence of highly complex mixtures of n-alkyl and cyclic biomarker components characteristic of fats, oils, beeswax, sugar gum, petroleum bitumen, and coniferous, Pistacia and possibly cedar resins. The mixture of balms is of comparable complexity to those used to mummify humans from the same period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A Buckley
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, Bristol Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
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Abstract
The importance of sample preparation methods as the first stage in an analytical procedure is emphasised and examined. Examples are given of the extraction and concentration of analytes from solid, liquid and gas phase matrices, including solvent phase extractions, such as supercritical fluids and superheated water extraction, solid-phase extraction and solid-phase microextraction, headspace analysis and vapour trapping. The potential role of selective extraction methods, including molecular imprinted phases and affinity columns, are considered. For problem samples alternative approaches, such as derivatisation are discussed, and potential new approaches minimising sample preparation are noted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger M Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Loughborough, Leics LE11 3TU, UK.
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35
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Evershed RP, Dudd SN, Copley MS, Berstan R, Stott AW, Mottram H, Buckley SA, Crossman Z. Chemistry of archaeological animal fats. Acc Chem Res 2002; 35:660-8. [PMID: 12186571 DOI: 10.1021/ar000200f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Animal fats are preserved at archaeological sites in association with unglazed pottery, human and animal remains, and other deposits or hoards. High-temperature gas chromatography (HT-GC) and combined HT-GC/mass spectrometry (HT-GC/MS) has confirmed the presence of animal fats in lipid extracts of artifacts. Degradation products and pathways have been discerned through the analyses of archaeological finds and the products of laboratory and field-based decay experiments. The origins of preserved fats have been determined through detailed compositional analysis of their component fatty acids by GC, by GC/MS of dimethyl disulfide derivatives of monoenoic components, and by GC-combustion-isotope ratio-MS (GC-C-IRMS), to derive diagenetically robust delta(13)C values. Regiospecific analysis of intact triacylglycerols by high-performance liquid chromatography/MS (HPLC/MS), with atmospheric pressure chemical ionization, provides a further criterion for establishing the origin of fats. Preparative GC has been employed to isolate individual fatty acids from archaeological pottery in sufficient amounts for (14)C dating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P Evershed
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, UK
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Niven SJ, Snape J, Hetheridge M, Evans M, McEvoy J, Rowland SJ. Investigations of cholesterol transformation during sewage treatment: relevance to estrogen formation pathways? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2001; 279:75-86. [PMID: 11712607 DOI: 10.1016/s0048-9697(01)00727-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
There is currently a great deal of concern over the observation of so-called estrogenic effects (specifically increases in the concentrations of the egg yolk precursor, vitellogenin) in male fish living in some UK rivers. The effects have been attributed to chemicals, including estrogenic steroids, which enter the rivers via sewage effluents. The origins of these estrogenic steroids in sewage may include contributions from the influents and possibly in situ transformation processes of other steroids occurring during sewage treatment. The present study examined the latter possibility. The bacterial metabolism of radiolabelled cholesterol during laboratory-simulated aerobic sewage treatment was studied by reverse phase radio-high performance liquid chromatography (rHPLC) and radio-gas chromatography (rGC) to examine the hypothesis that cholesterol could undergo A-ring aromatisation to form first, 19-norcholest-1,3,5(10)-trien-3-ol (NCT) and hence, by known bacterial pathways, the estrogenic steroid, estrone. The results showed that, to the contrary, much of the cholesterol (approx. 50% in 96 h) underwent rapid mineralisation to carbon dioxide, consistent with A-ring rupture (rather than aromatisation) and beta-oxidation of the alkyl side chain as major transformation routes. Some polar (early-eluting) rHPLC products were observed, possibly steroidal conjugates and/or fatty acids. Among the minor metabolites detected by rGC and GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were cholest-3,5-diene and a second cholestadiene isomer. However, since alkenes were unexpected in this rHPLC fraction, they may arise as artefacts from thermal decomposition of cholesteryl esters, indicating that some cholesterol esterification had also occurred. In the alcohol rHPLC fractions, cholestadienol was identified by GC and GC-MS but neither NCT or estrone were detected. This suggests that, at least under these simulated conditions, in situ aromatisation of cholesterol to NCT and formation of estrone from NCT were not major processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Niven
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Plymouth Environmental Research Centre, University of Plymouth, UK
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Buckley SA, Evershed RP. Organic chemistry of embalming agents in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman mummies. Nature 2001; 413:837-41. [PMID: 11677605 DOI: 10.1038/35101588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Chemical treatments were an essential element of ancient Egyptian mummification. Although the inorganic salt natron is recognized as having a central role as a desiccant, without the application of organic preservatives the bodies would have decomposed in the humid environment of the tombs. The nature of the organic treatments remains obscure, because the ancient Egyptians left no written record of the process. Secondary textual evidence for mummification is provided by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Pliny. The most important account is that of Herodotus (about 450 yr bc), although archaeological evidence shows that by this time the process had declined significantly and the best results had been achieved centuries before. His account mentions myrrh, cassia, palm wine, 'cedar oil' (still widely disputed) and 'gum'; however, it is vague with respect to the specific natural products used. Here we report the results of chemical investigations of a substantial collection of samples of tissues, wrappings and 'resinous/bituminous' materials from provenanced and dated Egyptian mummies. We focused on examples of the 'classic' mummy-making culture of the Pharaonic or dynastic period, from which we can begin to track the development of mummification chronologically.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Buckley
- Organic Geochemistry Unit, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock's Close, UK
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Comparon C, Bernard T, Manzin V, Kaba G. A Rapid Method for Fingerprinting the Organic Fraction in Archeological Samples Using a PTV as a Thermodesorber. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1521-4168(19991101)22:11<635::aid-jhrc635>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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