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Application of Ionic Liquids for the Recycling and Recovery of Technologically Critical and Valuable Metals. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15020628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Population growth has led to an increased demand for raw minerals and energy resources; however, their supply cannot easily be provided in the same proportions. Modern technologies contain materials that are becoming more finely intermixed because of the broadening palette of elements used, and this outcome creates certain limitations for recycling. The recovery and separation of individual elements, critical materials and valuable metals from complex systems requires complex energy-consuming solutions with many hazardous chemicals used. Significant pressure is brought to bear on the improvement of separation and recycling approaches by the need to balance sustainability, efficiency, and environmental impacts. Due to the increase in environmental consciousness in chemical research and industry, the challenge for a sustainable environment calls for clean procedures that avoid the use of harmful organic solvents. Ionic liquids, also known as molten salts and future solvents, are endowed with unique features that have already had a promising impact on cutting-edge science and technologies. This review aims to address the current challenges associated with the energy-efficient design, recovery, recycling, and separation of valuable metals employing ionic liquids.
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Bui NN, Ledina M, Reber TJ, Jung J, Stickney JL. Electrochemical Scanning Tunneling Microscopic Study of the Potential Dependence of Germanene Growth on Au(111) at pH 9.0. ACS NANO 2017; 11:9481-9489. [PMID: 28892356 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b05236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Germanene is a 2D material whose structure and properties are of great interest for integration with Si technology. Preparation of germanene experimentally remains a challenge because, unlike graphene, bulk germanene does not exist. Thus, germanene cannot be directly exfoliated and is mostly grown in ultrahigh vacuum. The present report uses electrodeposition in an aqueous HGeO3- solution at pH 9. Germanene deposition has been limited to 2-3 monolayers, thus greatly restricting many applicable characterization methods. The in situ technique of electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy was used to follow Ge deposition on Au(111) as a function of potential. Previous work by this group at pH 4.5 suggested germanene growth, but no buffer was used, resulting in change in surface pH. The addition of borate buffer to create pH 9.0 solution has reduced hydrogen formation and stabilized the surface pH, allowing systematic characterization of germanene growth versus potential. Initial germanene nucleated at defects in the Au(111) herringbone (HB) reconstruction. Subsequent growth proceeded down the face-centered cubic troughs, slowly relaxing the HB. The resulting honeycomb (HC) structure displayed an average lattice constant of 0.41 ± 0.06 nm. Continued growth resulted in the addition of a second layer on top, formed initially by nucleating around small islands and subsequent lateral 2D growth. Near atomic resolution of the germanene layers displayed small coherent domains, 2-3 nm, of the HC structure composed of six-membered rings. Domain walls were based on defective, five- and seven-membered rings, which resulted in small rotations between adjacent HC domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nhi N Bui
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Maria Ledina
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Theodore J Reber
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - Jin Jung
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
| | - John L Stickney
- Department of Chemistry, University of Georgia , Athens, Georgia 30602, United States
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Cummings CY, Bartlett PN, Pugh D, Reid G, Levason W, Hasan MM, Hector AL, Spencer J, Smith DC, Marks S, Beanland R. Electrodeposition of Protocrystalline Germanium from Supercritical Difluoromethane. ChemElectroChem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201500539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Y. Cummings
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology; University of Cambridge; Tennis Court Road Cambridge CB2 1TQ UK
| | - Philip N. Bartlett
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - David Pugh
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Gillian Reid
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - William Levason
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Mahboba M. Hasan
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Andrew L. Hector
- Chemistry; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Joe Spencer
- Physics and Astronomy; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - David C. Smith
- Physics and Astronomy; University of Southampton, University Road; Southampton SO17 1BJ UK
| | - Samuel Marks
- Department of Physics; University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road; Coventry CV4 7AL UK
| | - Richard Beanland
- Department of Physics; University of Warwick, Gibbet Hill Road; Coventry CV4 7AL UK
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Wu M, Vanhoutte G, Brooks NR, Binnemans K, Fransaer J. Electrodeposition of germanium at elevated temperatures and pressures from ionic liquids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:12080-9. [PMID: 25875112 DOI: 10.1039/c4cp06076h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The electrodeposition of germanium at elevated temperatures up to 180 °C and pressures was studied from the ionic liquids 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium dicyanamide and 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide containing [GeCl4(BuIm)2] (where BuIm = 1-butylimidazole) or GeCl4. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM), rotating ring-disk electrode (RRDE), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) were used to investigate the electrochemical behavior and the properties of the electrodeposited germanium. Electrodeposition at elevated temperatures leads to higher deposition rates due to: (1) increase in the diffusion rate of the electroactive germanium compounds; (2) faster electrochemical kinetics in the electrolyte; and (3) higher electrical conductivity of the electrodeposited germanium film. Moreover, the morphology of the germanium film is also of a better quality at higher electrodeposition temperatures due to an increase in adatom mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minxian Wu
- Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 44 - bus 2450, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium.
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Lahiri A, Olschewski M, Carstens T, El Abedin SZ, Endres F. Electrodeposition of Crystalline Gallium-Doped Germanium and SixGe1−xfrom an Ionic Liquid at Room Temperature. ChemElectroChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201402374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Lahiri A, Pulletikurthi G, Zein El Abedin S, Endres F. Electrodeposition of Ge, Sn and GexSn1-x from two different room temperature ionic liquids. J Solid State Electrochem 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-014-2675-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Bartlett PN, Cummings CY, Levason W, Pugh D, Reid G. Halometallate complexes of germanium(II) and (IV): probing the role of cation, oxidation state and halide on the structural and electrochemical properties. Chemistry 2014; 20:5019-27. [PMID: 24644266 PMCID: PMC4204132 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201400179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The Ge(IV) chlorometallate complexes, [EMIM]2 [GeCl6 ], [EDMIM]2 [GeCl6 ] and [PYRR]2 [GeCl6 ] (EMIM=1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium; EDMIM=2,3-dimethyl-1-ethylimidazolium; PYRR=N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium) have been synthesised and fully characterised; the first two also by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The imidazolium chlorometallates exhibited significant CH⋅⋅⋅Cl hydrogen bonds, resulting in extended supramolecular assemblies in the solid state. Solution (1) H NMR data also showed cation-anion association. The synthesis and characterisation of Ge(II) halometallate salts [EMIM][GeX3 ] (X=Cl, Br, I) and [PYRR][GeCl3 ], including single-crystal X-ray analyses for the homologous series of imidazolium salts, are reported. In these complexes, the intermolecular interactions are much weaker in the solid state and they appear not to be significantly associated in solution. Cyclic-voltammetry experiments on the Ge(IV) species in CH2 Cl2 solution showed two distinct, irreversible reduction waves attributed to Ge(IV) -Ge(II) and Ge(II) -Ge(0) , whereas the Ge(II) species exhibited one irreversible reduction wave. The potential for the Ge(II) -Ge(0) reduction was unaffected by changing the cation, although altering the oxidation state of the precursor from Ge(IV) to Ge(II) does have an effect; for a given cation, reduction from the [GeCl3 ](-) salts occurred at a less cathodic potential. The nature of the halide co-ligand also has a marked influence on the reduction potential for the Ge(II) -Ge(0) couple, such that the reduction potentials for the [GeX3 ](-) salts become significantly less cathodic when the halide (X) is changed Cl→Br→I.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip N Bartlett
- Chemistry, University of Southampton HighfieldSouthampton, SO17 1BJ (UK) E-mail:
| | - Charles Y Cummings
- Chemistry, University of Southampton HighfieldSouthampton, SO17 1BJ (UK) E-mail:
| | - William Levason
- Chemistry, University of Southampton HighfieldSouthampton, SO17 1BJ (UK) E-mail:
| | - David Pugh
- Chemistry, University of Southampton HighfieldSouthampton, SO17 1BJ (UK) E-mail:
| | - Gillian Reid
- Chemistry, University of Southampton HighfieldSouthampton, SO17 1BJ (UK) E-mail:
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Wu M, Brooks NR, Schaltin S, Binnemans K, Fransaer J. Electrodeposition of germanium from the ionic liquid 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium dicyanamide. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2013; 15:4955-64. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp44554b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Ke J, Bartlett PN, Cook D, Easun TL, George MW, Levason W, Reid G, Smith D, Su W, Zhang W. Electrodeposition of germanium from supercritical fluids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:1517-28. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp22555c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Liang X, Zhang Q, Lay MD, Stickney JL. Growth of Ge nanofilms using electrochemical atomic layer deposition, with a "bait and switch" surface-limited reaction. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 133:8199-204. [PMID: 21539385 DOI: 10.1021/ja109398t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ge nanofilms were deposited from aqueous solutions using the electrochemical analog of atomic layer deposition (ALD). Direct electrodeposition of Ge from an aqueous solution is self-limited to a few monolayers, depending on the pH. This report describes an E-ALD process for the growth of Ge films from aqueous solutions. The E-ALD cycle involved inducing a Ge atomic layer to deposit on a Te atomic layer formed on Ge, via underpotential deposition (UPD). The Te atomic layer was then reductively stripped from the deposit, leaving the Ge and completing the cycle. The Te atomic layer was bait for Ge deposition, after which the Te was switched out, reduced to a soluble telluride, leaving the Ge (one "bait and switch" cycle). Deposit thickness was a linear function of the number of cycles. Raman spectra indicated formation of an amorphous Ge film, consistent with the absence of a XRD pattern. Films were more stable and homogeneous when formed on Cu substrates, than on Au, due to a larger hydrogen overpotential, and the corresponding lower tendency to form bubbles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuehai Liang
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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Höfft O, Endres F. Plasma electrochemistry in ionic liquids: an alternative route to generate nanoparticles. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:13472-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp20501c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Zhang Q, Zhang S, Liu S, Ma X, Lu L, Deng Y. Ionic liquid-modified dyes and their sensing performance toward acids in aqueous and non-aqueous solutions. Analyst 2011; 136:1302-4. [DOI: 10.1039/c0an00885k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Su YZ, Fu YC, Wei YM, Yan JW, Mao BW. The Electrode/Ionic Liquid Interface: Electric Double Layer and Metal Electrodeposition. Chemphyschem 2010; 11:2764-78. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201000278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Liang X, Kim YG, Gebergziabiher DK, Stickney JL. Aqueous electrodeposition of Ge monolayers. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2010; 26:2877-2884. [PMID: 19904953 DOI: 10.1021/la902929j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The electrodeposition of germanium on Au(111) in aqueous solutions has been investigated by means of cyclic voltammetry, Auger electron spectroscopy, and in situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The data yield a picture of germanium deposition, which starts with the formation of two well-ordered hydroxide phases, with 1/3 ML and 4/9 ML coverages upon initial reduction of the Ge(IV) species (probably H(2)GeO(3) at pH 4.7). Those structures appear to result from a three-electron reduction to form surface-limited structures with (square root(3) x square root(3))R30 degrees or (3 x 3) unit cells, respectively. Further reduction, probably in a two-electron process from the hydroxide structures, resulted in a germanium hydride structure, again surface-limited, with a coverage of close to 0.8 ML. The hydride structure is very flat, though with the periodic modulation characteristic of a Moiré pattern. Longer deposition times and lower potentials resulted in increased coverage of Ge in some cases, but with apparently limited coverage as a function of pH. The maximum Ge coverage, about 4 ML, was observed using a pH 9.32 deposition solution. At potentials negative of the Moiré pattern, about -850 mV versus Ag/AgCl, a "corruption" of the smooth Moiré pattern occurred. This roughening appears to mark the initial formation of a Au-Ge alloy, accounting for the observation of coverage in excess of that needed to form the Moiré pattern at some pH values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuehai Liang
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA
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Migowski P, Zanchet D, Machado G, Gelesky MA, Teixeira SR, Dupont J. Nanostructures in ionic liquids: correlation of iridium nanoparticles’ size and shape with imidazolium salts’ structural organization and catalytic properties. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2010; 12:6826-33. [DOI: 10.1039/b925834e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Mekhdiev IG. The influence of an electric field on the wetting of an SiO2 film by ionic liquids. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY A 2010. [DOI: 10.1134/s0036024410040291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
Abstract
Ionic liquids are solvents that are solely composed of ions. By definition their melting points are below 100 °C. Typical cations are substituted imidazolium ions, like 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium, or tetraalkylammonium ions, like e.g. trioctyl-methyl-ammonium. Some important anions are hexafluorophosphate, trifluoromethylsulfonate, bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide. Many ionic liquids have negligible vapour pressures even at temperatures of 300 °C and more, they can have viscosities similar to water, ionic conductivities of up to 0.1 (Ω cm)−1, and, which makes them interesting for electrochemistry, wide electrochemical windows of more than 6 Volt. In this review article recent results of the author are summarized. It is shown that with the scanning tunneling microscope the processes during phase formation can be probed in situ with high quality. An important result is that semiconductors, shown at the example of germanium, can be made electrochemically on the nanoscale and that the electronic properties (band gap) can be measured in situ with current/voltage tunneling spectroscopy. Ionic liquids will gain a rising interest in electrochemistry as elements and compounds can be made electrochemically which are not accessible by conventional aqueous or organic electrochemistry.
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Meng X, Al-Salman R, Zhao J, Borissenko N, Li Y, Endres F. Elektrochemische Abscheidung von dreidimensional geordnetem makroporösem Germanium aus ionischen Flüssigkeiten: eine Methode zur Herstellung von photonischen Kristallen mit hoher Dielektrizitätskonstante. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200805252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Meng X, Al-Salman R, Zhao J, Borissenko N, Li Y, Endres F. Electrodeposition of 3D Ordered Macroporous Germanium from Ionic Liquids: A Feasible Method to Make Photonic Crystals with a High Dielectric Constant. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009; 48:2703-7. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200805252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Al-Salman R, Endres F. Template-assisted electrodeposition of SixGe1−x nanowires with varying length and composition from two different ionic liquids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1039/b909265j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Tsuda T, Hussey CL. Electrochemistry of Room-Temperature Ionic Liquids and Melts. MODERN ASPECTS OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-0655-7_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Yan YD, Zhang ML, Xue Y, Han W, Cao DX, Jing XY, He LY, Yuan Y. Electrochemical formation of Mg–Li–Ca alloys by codeposition of Mg, Li and Ca from LiCl–KCl–MgCl2–CaCl2 melts. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2009; 11:6148-55. [DOI: 10.1039/b821609f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Scariot M, Silva D, Scholten J, Machado G, Teixeira S, Novak M, Ebeling G, Dupont J. Cobalt Nanocubes in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Properties. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 47:9075-8. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200804200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Scariot M, Silva D, Scholten J, Machado G, Teixeira S, Novak M, Ebeling G, Dupont J. Cobalt Nanocubes in Ionic Liquids: Synthesis and Properties. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200804200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Prechtl MHG, Scariot M, Scholten JD, Machado G, Teixeira SR, Dupont J. Nanoscale Ru(0) Particles: Arene Hydrogenation Catalysts in Imidazolium Ionic Liquids. Inorg Chem 2008; 47:8995-9001. [DOI: 10.1021/ic801014f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin H. G. Prechtl
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, Institute of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, and Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Rua Francisco Getúlio Vargas, 1130, Caxias do Sul 95070-560, RS, Brazil
| | - Morgana Scariot
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, Institute of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, and Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Rua Francisco Getúlio Vargas, 1130, Caxias do Sul 95070-560, RS, Brazil
| | - Jackson D. Scholten
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, Institute of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, and Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Rua Francisco Getúlio Vargas, 1130, Caxias do Sul 95070-560, RS, Brazil
| | - Giovanna Machado
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, Institute of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, and Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Rua Francisco Getúlio Vargas, 1130, Caxias do Sul 95070-560, RS, Brazil
| | - Sérgio R. Teixeira
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, Institute of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, and Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Rua Francisco Getúlio Vargas, 1130, Caxias do Sul 95070-560, RS, Brazil
| | - Jairton Dupont
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, Institute of Physics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves 9500, Porto Alegre, CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil, and Universidade de Caxias do Sul, Departamento de Engenharia Química, Rua Francisco Getúlio Vargas, 1130, Caxias do Sul 95070-560, RS, Brazil
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Carstens T, Zein El Abedin S, Endres F. Electrosynthesis of Poly(para)phenylene in an Ionic Liquid: Cyclic Voltammetry and in Situ STM/Tunnelling Spectroscopy Studies. Chemphyschem 2008; 9:439-44. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200700727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Al-Salman R, Mallet J, Molinari M, Fricoteaux P, Martineau F, Troyon M, El Abedin SZ, Endres F. Template assisted electrodeposition of germanium and silicon nanowires in an ionic liquid. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2008; 10:6233-7. [DOI: 10.1039/b809075k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Al-Salman R, El Abedin SZ, Endres F. Electrodeposition of Ge, Si and SixGe1−x from an air- and water-stable ionic liquid. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2008; 10:4650-7. [DOI: 10.1039/b806996b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Abstract
Due to their wide thermal windows, ionic liquids can be regarded as the missing link between aqueous/organic solutions and high-temperature molten salts. They can be employed efficiently for the coating of other metals with thin layers of tantalum, aluminum, and presumably many others at reasonable temperatures by electrochemical means. The development of ionic liquids, especially air and water stable ones, has opened the door for the electrodeposition of reactive elements such as, for example, Al, Ta, and Si, which in the past were only accessible using high-temperature molten salts or, in part, organic solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif Zein El Abedin
- Faculty of Natural and Materials Sciences, Clausthal University of Technology, Robert-Koch-Strasse 42, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
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Wang JG, Tang J, Fu YC, Wei YM, Chen ZB, Mao BW. STM tip-induced nanostructuring of Zn in an ionic liquid on Au(111) electrode surfaces. Electrochem commun 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2006.10.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
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33
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Huang Q, Bedell SW, Saenger KL, Copel M, Deligianni H, Romankiw LT. Single-Crystalline Germanium Thin Films by Electrodeposition and Solid-Phase Epitaxy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1149/1.2771097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Migowski P, Dupont J. Catalytic Applications of Metal Nanoparticles in Imidazolium Ionic Liquids. Chemistry 2006; 13:32-9. [PMID: 17115465 DOI: 10.1002/chem.200601438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Metal nanoparticles (MNPs) with a small diameter and narrow size distribution can be prepared by H(2) reduction of metal compounds or decomposition of organometallic species dissolved in ionic liquids (ILs). MNPs dispersed in ILs are catalysts for reactions under multiphase conditions. These soluble MNPs possess a pronounced surfacelike rather than single-site like catalytic properties. In other cases the MNPs are not stable and tend to aggregate or serve as reservoirs of mononuclear catalytically active species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Migowski
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis, Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, UFRGS, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500 Porto Alegre 91501-970 RS, Brazil
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Borisenko N, Zein El Abedin S, Endres F. In Situ STM Investigation of Gold Reconstruction and of Silicon Electrodeposition on Au(111) in the Room Temperature Ionic Liquid 1-Butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium Bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide. J Phys Chem B 2006; 110:6250-6. [PMID: 16553441 DOI: 10.1021/jp057337d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The electrodeposition of silicon on Au(111) was investigated by cyclic voltammety (CV) and by in situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) in the room temperature ionic liquid 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide with a SiCl(4) concentration of 0.1 mol/L. A main reduction process begins in the cyclic voltammogram at about -1800 mV versus ferrocene/ferrocinium, which is correlated to the electrodeposition of elemental semiconducting silicon. It has been found that at an electrode potential more negative than the open circuit potential (OCP), the Au(111) surface is subject to a restructuring/reconstruction both in the case of the pure ionic liquid and in the presence of SiCl(4). The first STM-probed silicon islands with 150-450 pm in height appear at about -1700 mV versus ferrocene/ferrocinium. Their lateral and vertical growth leads to the formation of a rough layer with silicon islands of up to 1 nm in height. At about -1800 mV the islands merge and form silicon agglomerates. In situ I/U tunneling spectroscopy reveals a band gap of 1.1 +/- 0.2 eV for layers of about 5 nm in height, a value that has to be expected for semiconducting silicon.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Borisenko
- Faculty of Natural and Materials Sciences, Clausthal University of Technology, Robert-Koch-Strasse 42, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
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36
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Zein el-Abedin S, Endres F. Electrodeposition of Metals and Semiconductors in Air- and Water-Stable Ionic Liquids. Chemphyschem 2006; 7:58-61. [PMID: 16308878 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200500288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In addition to their stability, the advantages of air- and water-stable ionic liquids over chloroaluminate ionic liquids, which were intensively investigated in the past, are that they are easy to dry, purify, and handle. Moreover, some of these ionic liquids have an extremely large electrochemical window of more than 5 V, and hence they give access to the electrodeposition of many metals and semiconductors, such as Ta, Ti, Si, and Ge. The results to date for the electrodeposition of metals and semiconductors in the most popular air- and water-stable ionic liquids are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif Zein el-Abedin
- Faculty of Natural and Materials Sciences, Clausthal University of Technology, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
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37
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Aldous L, Silvester DS, Villagrán C, Pitner WR, Compton RG, Cristina Lagunas M, Hardacre C. Electrochemical studies of gold and chloride in ionic liquids. NEW J CHEM 2006. [DOI: 10.1039/b609261f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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38
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Endres F, Zein El Abedin S. Air and water stable ionic liquids in physical chemistry. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2006; 8:2101-16. [PMID: 16751868 DOI: 10.1039/b600519p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 681] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Ionic liquids are defined today as liquids which solely consist of cations and anions and which by definition must have a melting point of 100 degrees C or below. Originating from electrochemistry in AlCl(3) based liquids an enormous progress was made during the recent 10 years to synthesize ionic liquids that can be handled under ambient conditions, and today about 300 ionic liquids are already commercially available. Whereas the main interest is still focussed on organic and technical chemistry, various aspects of physical chemistry in ionic liquids are discussed now in literature. In this review article we give a short overview on physicochemical aspects of ionic liquids, such as physical properties of ionic liquids, nanoparticles, nanotubes, batteries, spectroscopy, thermodynamics and catalysis of/in ionic liquids. The focus is set on air and water stable ionic liquids as they will presumably dominate various fields of chemistry in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Endres
- Faculty of Natural and Materials Sciences, Clausthal University of Technology, Robert-Koch-Str. 42, 38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany.
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Dupont J, Suarez PAZ. Physico-chemical processes in imidazolium ionic liquids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2006; 8:2441-52. [PMID: 16721427 DOI: 10.1039/b602046a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 356] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Among the various properties exhibited by ionic liquids (ILs)--especially those based on the imidazolium cation-their inherent ionic patterns, very low vapour pressure and pronounced self-organization in the solid, liquid and even in the gas phase are particularly interesting since this allows the use of these fluids as alternative and complementary media to classical organic solvents and water in many applications. Hence, reaction paths that involve charge-separated intermediates or transition states are accelerated--by lowering the activation barrier-in the presence of ILs when compared with those performed in classical organic solvents. It is also possible, for example, to observe, by electrochemical methods, transient species (ionic and radical) that are otherwise undetectible in water or in molecular organic solvents and to investigate the interactions and behaviour of molecular, biological and macromolecular species in solution using physical and chemical methods which require special conditions such as high-vacuum, and which have been traditionally limited to solid state chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jairton Dupont
- Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis -IQ-UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Electrochemical Magnesium Deposition and Dissolution with High Efficiency in Ionic Liquid. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1149/1.2052048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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41
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El Abedin SZ, Farag HK, Moustafa EM, Welz-Biermann U, Endres F. Electroreduction of tantalum fluoride in a room temperature ionic liquid at variable temperatures. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2005; 7:2333-9. [PMID: 19785118 DOI: 10.1039/b502789f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S Zein El Abedin
- Institute of Metallurgy, Clausthal University of Technology, Robert-Koch-Str. 42, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany
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Zein El Abedin S, Borissenko N, Endres F. Electrodeposition of nanoscale silicon in a room temperature ionic liquid. Electrochem commun 2004. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2004.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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43
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Freyland W, Zell C, Abedin SE, Endres F. Nanoscale electrodeposition of metals and semiconductors from ionic liquids. Electrochim Acta 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0013-4686(03)00378-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Wang Y, Sibener SJ. Reactive Deposition of Silicon Nanowires Templated on a Stepped Nickel Surface. J Phys Chem B 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/jp021855w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Wang
- The James Franck Institute and the Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, 5640 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637
| | - S. J. Sibener
- The James Franck Institute and the Department of Chemistry, The University of Chicago, 5640 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637
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