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Abstract
Cage compounds offer unique binding pockets similar to enzyme-binding sites, which can be customized in terms of size, shape, and functional groups to point toward the cavity and many other parameters. Different synthetic strategies have been developed to create a toolkit of methods that allow preparing tailor-made organic cages for a number of distinct applications, such as gas separation, molecular recognition, molecular encapsulation, hosts for catalysis, etc. These examples show the versatility and high selectivity that can be achieved using cages, which is impossible by employing other molecular systems. This review explores the progress made in the field of fully organic molecular cages and containers by focusing on the properties of the cavity and their application to encapsulate guests.
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Solution NMR of synthetic cavity containing supramolecular systems: what have we learned on and from? Chem Commun (Camb) 2021; 57:8856-8884. [PMID: 34486595 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc02906a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
NMR has been instrumental in studies of both the structure and dynamics of molecular systems for decades, so it is not surprising that NMR has played a pivotal role in the study of host-guest complexes and supramolecular systems. In this mini-review, selected examples will be used to demonstrate the added value of using (multiparametric) NMR for studying macrocycle-based host-guest and supramolecular systems. We will restrict the discussion to synthetic host systems having a cavity that can engulf their guests thus restricting them into confined spaces. So discussion of selected examples of cavitands, cages, capsules and their complexes, aggregates and polymers as well as organic cages and porous liquids and other porous materials will be used to demonstrate the insights that have been gathered from the extracted NMR parameters when studying such systems emphasizing the information obtained from somewhat less routine NMR methods such as diffusion NMR, diffusion ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) and chemical exchange saturation transfer (CEST) and their variants. These selected examples demonstrate the impact that the results and findings from these NMR studies have had on our understanding of such systems and on the developments in various research fields.
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Optimized iminium-catalysed 1,4-reductions inside the resorcinarene capsule: achieving >90% ee with proline as catalyst. RSC Adv 2021; 11:24607-24612. [PMID: 34354825 PMCID: PMC8278068 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra04333a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In previous work, we demonstrated that iminium-catalysed 1,4-reductions inside the supramolecular resorcinarene capsule display increased enantioselectivities as compared to their regular solution counterparts. Utilizing proline as the chiral catalyst, enantioselectivities remained below 80% ee. In this study, the reaction conditions were optimized by determining the optimal capsule loading and HCl content. Additionally, it was found that alcohol additives increase the enantioselectivity of the capsule-catalysed reaction. As a result, we report enantioselectivities of up to 92% ee for iminium-catalysed 1,4-reductions relying on proline as the sole chiral source. This is of high interest, as proline is unable to deliver high enantioselectivities for 1,4-reductions in a regular solution setting. Investigations into the role of the alcohol additive revealed a dual role: it not only slowed down the background reaction but also increased the capsule-catalysed reaction rate. A supramolecular container enables highly enantioselective iminium chemistry using simple proline as the chiral source.![]()
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A Concise Synthesis of a Methyl Ester 2-Resorcinarene: A Chair-Conformation Macrocycle. Symmetry (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/sym13040627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Anions are important hydrogen bond acceptors in a range of biological, chemical, environmental and medical molecular recognition processes. These interactions have been exploited for the design and synthesis of ditopic resorcinarenes as the hydrogen bond strength can be tuned through the modification of the substituent at the 2-position. However, many potentially useful compounds, especially those incorporating electron-withdrawing functionalities, have not been prepared due to the challenge of their synthesis: their incorporation slows resorcinarene formation that is accessed by electrophilic aromatic substitution. As part of our broader campaign to employ resorcinarenes as selective recognition elements, we need access to these specialized materials. In this article, we report a straightforward synthetic pathway for obtaining a 2-(carboxymethyl)-resorcinarene, and resorcinarene esters in general. We discuss the unusual conformation it adopts and propose that this arises from the electron-withdrawing nature of the ester substituents that renders them better hydrogen bond acceptors than the phenols, ensuring that each of them acts as a donor only. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations show that this conformation arises as a consequence of the unusual configurational isomerism of this compound and interruption of the archetypal hydrogen bonding by the ester functionality.
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Water plays a dynamical role in a hydrogen-bonded, hexameric supramolecular assembly. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:6167-6175. [PMID: 32124881 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp06874k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The hexameric resorcin[4]arene supramolecular assembly has attracted significant interest as a self-assembled capsule that exhibits dynamic host-guest chemistry. Many studies have been carried out to investigate the structure and thermodynamics of the assembly, but considerably less is known about its dynamical properties. Here, molecular dynamics simulations are used to investigate the timescales of water encapsulation in this assembly in wet chloroform. We have previously shown [A. Katiyar et al., Chem. Commun. 2019, 55, 6591-6594] that at low water content there are three distinct populations of water molecules present, while at higher water content an additional population, long water chains interacting with the assembly, appears. The relative free energies of these different water positions are calculated and time correlation functions are used to determine the timescales for interconversion between the populations. This analysis demonstrates that the water molecules are in rapid exchange with each other on timescales of tens of ps to a few ns, and suggests that water molecules might be acting as a critical component in the guest exchange mechanism.
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The Hexameric Resorcinarene Capsule at Work: Supramolecular Catalysis in Confined Spaces. Chemistry 2019; 25:4899-4913. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201805206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Diffusion NMR for the characterization, in solution, of supramolecular systems based on calixarenes, resorcinarenes, and other macrocyclic arenes. Org Chem Front 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9qo00329k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The use of diffusion NMR in studying calixarenes and other arene-based supramolecular systems is described, emphasizing the pivotal role played by the calixarene community in transforming the methods into a routine tool used in supramolecular chemistry.
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A propanol-seamed C-methylcalix[4]resorcinarene hexamer accessible via solution crystallization, liquid-assisted grinding and vapour sorption. CrystEngComm 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8ce00294k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A propanol-seamed C-methylcalix[4]resorcinarene hexamer formed from a bilayer structure by unprecedented, exposure to solvent in the vapour phase.
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Inclusion complexes of Cethyl-2-methylresorcinarene and pyridine N-oxides: breaking the C–I⋯−O–N+ halogen bond by host–guest complexation. CrystEngComm 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ce02354h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cethyl-2-Methylresorcinarene and aromatic N-oxides manifest host–guest chemistry by C–H⋯π interactions and halogen bonding; the C–I⋯−O–N+ halogen bond with 2-iodopyridine N-oxide is broken by the in-cavity C–I⋯π interactions.
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Solid-state isolation of a unique, small-molecule, supra-heterodimer of large hexameric assemblies of C-methylcalix[4]resorcinarene. CrystEngComm 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ce00698a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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2-Methylresorcinarene: a very high packing coefficient in a mono-anion based dimeric capsule and the X-ray crystal structure of the tetra-anion. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:8115-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cc03289c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Mono- and tetra-deprotonated 2-methylresorcinarene anions (1 and 2) as their trans-1,4-diammoniumcyclohexane (TDAC)2+ inclusion complexes are reported.
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Hydration of aromatic alkynes catalyzed by a self-assembled hexameric organic capsule. Catal Sci Technol 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cy00307a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The combination of a Brønsted acid catalyst and a supramolecular organic capsule formed by the self-assembly of six resorcin[4]arene units efficiently promotes the mild hydration of aromatic alkynes to their corresponding ketones.
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Abstract
In the last decade diffusion NMR and diffusion ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) have become important analytical tools for the characterization of supramolecular systems in solution. Diffusion NMR can be used to glean information on the (effective) size and shape of molecular species, as well as to probe inter-molecular interactions and can be used to estimate the association constant (Ka) of a complex. In addition, the diffusion coefficient, as obtained from diffusion NMR, is a much more intuitive parameter than the chemical shift for probing self-association, aggregation and inter-molecular interactions. The diffusion coefficient may be an even more important analytical parameter in systems in which the formed supramolecular entity has the same symmetry as its building units, when there is a large change in the molecular weight, where many molecular species are involved in the formation of the supramolecular systems, and when proton transfer may occur which, in turn, may affect the chemical shift. Some of the self-assembled molecular capsules and cages prepared in the last decade represent such supramolecular systems and in the present review, following a short introduction on diffusion NMR, we survey the contribution of diffusion NMR and DOSY in the field of molecular containers and capsules. We will first focus on the role played by diffusion NMR in the field of hydrogen bond driven self-assembled capsules. We then survey the contributions of diffusion NMR and DOSY to the study and characterization of metal-ligand cages and capsules. Finally, we describe a few recent applications of diffusion NMR in the field of hydrophobic, electrostatic and covalent containers.
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Thermal Behavior of Amphiphilic Calix[4]resorcinarene in the Presence of Silica Nanoparticles. CHEM LETT 2015. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.141109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Supramolecular Catalysis in the Synthesis of Substituted 1 H-Tetrazoles from Isonitriles by a Self-Assembled Hexameric Capsule. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.201402229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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18
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Supramolecular Encapsulation of Neutral Diazoacetate Esters and Catalyzed 1,3-Dipolar Cycloaddition Reaction by a Self-Assembled Hexameric Capsule. ChemCatChem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201402631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Controlling the Size and Morphology of Supramolecular Assemblies of Viologen–Resorcin[4]arene Cavitands. Chemistry 2014; 20:14018-25. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201403721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Three resorcin[4]arene-based complexes with Cu(ii)-exchange characteristics and fluorescence sensing of polyoxometalates in aqueous solutions. CrystEngComm 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ce01376j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Assembly of a calix[4]arene-supported MnIIIMnIIcluster mediated by halogen interactions. CrystEngComm 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ce00729h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Structural alteration of the metal–organic pyrogallol[4]arene nano-capsule motif by incorporation of large metal centres. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:4508-10. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cc00202d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Hexameric Resorcinarene Capsule is a Brønsted Acid: Investigation and Application to Synthesis and Catalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:16213-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ja4080375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Crystal Engineering: Lattice Inclusion Based on O–H···O Hydrogen-Bonded Self-Assembly and Guest-Induced Structural Mimicry. J Org Chem 2012; 77:7858-65. [DOI: 10.1021/jo3010292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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The Effect of Alcohol Structures on the Interaction Mode with the Hexameric Capsule of Resorcin[4]arene. Chemistry 2012; 18:8515-20. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201102809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2011] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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28
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Facile and efficient synthesis of C3-symmetric benzoxazine: a novel tri-arm molecular scaffold. Tetrahedron Lett 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2011.10.162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Ionic galleries: a bilayered host–guest cocrystal of C-propyl pyrogallol[4]arene with an ionic liquid. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012; 48:5262-4. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cc31510f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Supramolecular Capsules Derived from Resorcin[4]arenes by H-Bonding and Metal Coordination: Synthesis, Characterization, and Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy. Isr J Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201100056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Multicomponent assembly of cavitand-based polyacylhydrazone nanocapsules. Chemistry 2011; 17:9395-405. [PMID: 21735498 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201100527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The thermodynamically controlled syntheses of different di-, tetra-, and hexacavitand polyacylhydrazone nanocapsules are reported. [2+4]-, [4+8]-, and [6+12]-nanocapsules assemble upon reacting a tetraformyl cavitand with two equivalents of isophthalic dihydrazide, or terephthalic dihydrazide in the presence of trifluoroacetic acid, whereby the building blocks are linked together through 8, 16, or 24 newly formed acylhydrazone bonds. Futhermore, the reaction of the tetraformylcavitands with different trigonal planar trihydrazides, simultaneously leads to the formation of [2+4]- and [6+8]-nanocapsules in varying ratios that depend on the cavitand to trihydrazide ratio and the nature of the cavitand and trihydrazide building blocks. The product ratios are rationalized with the different conformational strain of the acylhydrazone linkages in these nanocapsules. Diffusion NMR experiments with the hexacavitand polyacylhydrazone nanocapsules yield solvodynamic radii that range from 1.6 to 2.5 nm, consistent with estimates from force field calculations, and support, that these capsules have solvent filled, spherical interiors, the sizes of which approaches those of smaller proteins.
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A Family of Calix[4]arene-Supported [MnIII2MnII2] Clusters. Chemistry 2011; 17:7521-30. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201003327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2010] [Revised: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Abstract
Basic research in the chemistry of hexameric resorcin[4]arenes and pyrogallol[4]arenes during the last decade is reviewed. Applications of NMR methods to determine solution structures, host guest properties and exchange dynamics are discussed. The scientific issue is the behavior of molecules in small spaces; the challenge is to translate this information to practical applications in, say, catalysis or transport.
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Efficient Loading and Kinetic Trapping of Hexameric Pyrogallolarene Capsules in Solution. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011; 50:2244-8. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201007800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Efficient Loading and Kinetic Trapping of Hexameric Pyrogallolarene Capsules in Solution. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201007800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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37
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Crystal structure of spherical aromatic amide: pseudopolymorphs and formation of infinite water cluster in the channel structure. CrystEngComm 2011. [DOI: 10.1039/c0ce00301h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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X-ray diffraction, FT-IR, and (13)C CP/MAS NMR structural studies of solvated and desolvated C-methylcalix[4]resorcinarene. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:10311-20. [PMID: 20701366 DOI: 10.1021/jp1015565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Solid C-methylcalix[4]resorcinarene solvated by acetonitrile and water (CAL-Me) and then modified by slow solvent evaporation (CAL-Me*) was studied using single-crystal and powder X-ray diffraction, FT-IR, and (13)C CP/MAS NMR. The CAL-Me solvate crystallizes in the monoclinic P2(1)/n space group with three CH(3)CN and two H(2)O molecules in the asymmetric part of the unit cell. The CAL-Me molecules adopt a typical crown conformation with all of the hydroxyl groups of the aryl rings oriented up and all of the methyl groups disposed down (the rccc isomeric form). The crystalline network is formed by resorcinarene, CH(3)CN, and H(2)O molecules and assembled by intermolecular hydrogen bonds and weak C-H...A or C-H...pi interactions. The desolvated CAL-Me* loses its crystalline character and becomes partly amorphous. It is devoid of CH(3)CN and deficient in water. However, the resorcinarene molecules still remain in the crown conformation supported by intramolecular hydrogen bonds, while intermolecular hydrogen bonds are considerably disintegrated. The work directs general attention to the problem of stability and polymorphism of resorcinarene solvates. It shows that the joint use of diffractometric and spectroscopic methods is advantageous in the structural studies of complex crystalline macromolecular systems. On the other hand, the solid-state IR and NMR spectroscopic analyses applied in tandem have been found highly beneficial to elucidate the disordered structure of poorly crystalline, desolvated resorcinarene.
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[MnIII4LnIII4] Calix[4]arene Clusters as Enhanced Magnetic Coolers and Molecular Magnets. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:12983-90. [DOI: 10.1021/ja104848m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 262] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Encapsulated or Not Encapsulated? Mapping Alcohol Sites in Hexameric Capsules of Resorcin[4]arenes in Solution by Diffusion NMR Spectroscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2010; 49:428-31. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200904952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Encapsulated or Not Encapsulated? Mapping Alcohol Sites in Hexameric Capsules of Resorcin[4]arenes in Solution by Diffusion NMR Spectroscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200904952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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50
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