Phosphate Group-Derivated Bipyridine-Ruthenium Complex and Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensing of Protein Kinase Activity

Monitoring of protein kinase activity is of significance for fundamentals of biochemistry, biomedical diagnose, and drug screening. To reduce the usage of a relatively complicated bio-labeled signal probe, the phosphate group-derivated bipyridine-ruthenium (Pbpy-Ru) complex and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) were employed as signal probes to develop an electrochemical sensor for evaluating the protein kinase A (PKA) activity. Through the specific interaction between the phosphate groups and TiO₂ NPs, the preparation of a Pbpy-Ru-TiO₂ NP signal probe and its linkage with the phosphorylated PKA substrate peptides could be performed in a simple and effective way. The tethering of Pbpy-Ru onto the TiO₂ NP surface does not degrade the electrochemical property of the complex. The Pbpy-Ru-TiO₂ NP probe exhibits well-defined redox signals at about 1.0 V versus Ag/AgCl reference and notably has about fivefold current response than that of the TiO₂ NPs with physically adsorbed tris-(bipyridine)-Ru. The PKA activity evaluation was realized by measuring the electrochemical response of the Pbpy-Ru-TiO₂ NPs at the phosphorylated peptide-assembled electrode. Operating at optimal conditions, the cathodic signals at the potential of 1.03 V exhibit a good linearity with the PKA concentrations of 0.5-40 U mL^-1. The electrochemical sensor shows good selectivity, low detection limit (0.2 U mL^-1, signal/noise = 3), qualified reproducibility, and satisfactory applicability for PKA determination in the cell lysate. The Pbpy-Ru-TiO₂ NPs/electrode system would be an excellent electrochemical platform for protein phosphorylation monitoring and sensing.

Electrochemical detection of kinase by converting homogeneous analysis into heterogeneous assay through avidin-biotin interaction

In the classical heterogeneous electrochemical assay, phosphorylation of peptide substrate is usually performed on the solid-liquid surface. However, immobilization of probe on the solid surface may limit the interaction between the reaction site of probe and the active center of kinase due to the steric hindrance effect. In this work, we proposed a heterogeneous electrochemical method for kinase detection, in which the probe is immobilization-free during the phosphorylation reaction. A biotinylated peptide was used as the kinase substrate. After phosphorylation, the biotinylated phosphopeptide was captured by the neutravidin (NA)-modified electrode through the avidin-biotin interaction. The phosphate groups on the electrode surface were then recognized by the conjugates preformed between biotinylated Phos-tag™ (Bio-tag-Phos) and ferrocene (Fc)-capped NA-modified gold nanoparticle (Fc-AuNP-NA). The method integrates the advantages of homogeneous reaction and heterogeneous detection with high simplicity, sensitivity and specificity. The strategy can be applied to design other heterogeneous biosensors without the immobilization of probe during the enzyme catalyzed reaction.

Gold nanoparticles-based electrochemical method for the detection of protein kinase with a peptide-like inhibitor as the bioreceptor

This article presents a general method for the detection of protein kinase with a peptide-like kinase inhibitor as the bioreceptor, and it was done by converting gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)-based colorimetric assay into sensitive electrochemical analysis. In the colorimetric assay, the kinase-specific aptameric peptide triggered the aggregation of AuNPs in solution. However, the specific binding of peptide to the target protein (kinase) inhibited its ability to trigger the assembly of AuNPs. In the electrochemical analysis, peptides immobilized on a gold electrode and presented as solution triggered together the in situ formation of AuNPs-based network architecture on the electrode surface. Nevertheless, the formation of peptide-kinase complex on the electrode surface made the peptide-triggered AuNPs assembly difficult. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was used to measure the change in surface property in the binding events. When a ferrocene-labeled peptide (Fc-peptide) was used in this design, the network of AuNPs/Fc-peptide produced a good voltammetric signal. The competitive assay allowed for the detection of protein kinase A with a detection limit of 20 mU/mL. This work should be valuable for designing novel optical or electronic biosensors and likely lead to many detection applications.

Protein phosphorylation detection using dual-mode field-effect devices and nanoplasmonic sensors

Phosphorylation by kinases is an important post-translational modification of proteins. It is a critical control for the regulation of vital cellular activities, and its dysregulation is implicated in several diseases. A common drug discovery approach involves, therefore, time-consuming screenings of large libraries of candidate compounds to identify novel inhibitors of protein kinases. In this work, we propose a novel method that combines localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) and electrolyte insulator semiconductor (EIS)-based proton detection for the rapid identification of novel protein kinase inhibitors. In particular, the selective detection of thiophosphorylated proteins by LSPR is achieved by changing their resonance properties via a pre-binding with gold nanoparticles. In parallel, the EIS field-effect structure allows the real-time electrochemical monitoring of the protein phosphorylation by detecting the release of protons associated with the kinases activity. This innovative combination of both field-effect and nanoplasmonic sensing makes the detection of protein phosphorylation more reliable and effective. As a result, the screening of protein kinase inhibitors becomes more rapid, sensitive, robust and cost-effective.

A signal "on" photoelectrochemical biosensor for assay of protein kinase activity and its inhibitor based on graphite-like carbon nitride, Phos-tag and alkaline phosphatase

A highly sensitive and selective photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensor is fabricated for the detection of protein kinase activity based on visible-light active graphite-like carbon nitride (g-C3N4) and the specific recognition utility of Phos-tag for protein kinase A (PKA)-induced phosphopeptides. For assembling the substrate peptides, g-C3N4 and gold nanoparticles (g-C3N4-AuNPs) complex is synthesized and characterized. When the immobilized peptides on g-C3N4-AuNPs modified ITO electrode are phosphorylated under PKA catalysis, they can be specifically identified and binded with biotin functionalized Phos-tag (Phos-tag-biotin) in the presence of Zn(2+). Then, through the specific interaction between biotin and avidin, avidin functionalized alkaline phosphatase (avidin-ALP) is further assembled to catalyze its substrate of l-ascorbic acid-2-phosphate trisodium salt (AAP) to produce electron donor of ascorbic acid (AA), resulting an increased photocurrent compared with the absence of phosphorylation event. Based on the specific identification effect of Phos-tag, the fabricated biosensor presents excellent selectivity for capturing the phosphorylated serine residues in the substrate peptides. With the good photoactivity of g-C3N4 and ALP-catalyzed signal amplification, the fabricated biosensor presents high sensitivity and low detection limit (0.015 unit/mL, S/N = 3) for PKA. The applicability of this PEC biosensor is further testified by the evaluation of PKA inhibition by HA-1077 with the IC50 value of 1.18μM. This new strategy is also successfully applied to detect the change of PKA activity in cancer cell lysate with and without drug stimulation. Therefore, the developed PEC method has great potential in screening of kinase inhibitors and highly sensitive detection of kinase activity.

Pharmacokinetics, clearance, and biosafety of polyethylene glycol-coated hollow gold nanospheres

OBJECTIVE

Gold nanoparticles have attracted enormous interest as potential theranostic agents. However, little is known about the long-term elimination and systemic toxicity of gold nanoparticles in the literature. Hollow gold nanospheres (HAuNS) is a class of photothermal conducting agent that have shown promises in photoacoustic imaging, photothermal ablation therapy, and drug delivery. It's very necessary to make clear the biosafety of HAuNS for its further application.

METHODS

We investigated the cytotoxicity, complement activation, and platelet aggregation of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated HAuNS (PEG-HAuNS, average diameter of 63 nm) in vitro and their pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, organ elimination, hematology, clinical chemistry, acute toxicity, and chronic toxicity in mice.

RESULTS

PEG-HAuNS did not induce detectable activation of the complement system and did not induce detectable platelet aggregation. The blood half-life of PEG-HAuNS in mice was 8.19 ± 1.4 hr. The single effective dose of PEG-HAuNS in photothermal ablation therapy was determined to be 12.5 mg/kg. PEG-HAuNS caused no adverse effects after 10 daily intravenous injections over a 2-week period at a dose of 12.5 mg/kg per injection (accumulated dose: 125 mg/kg). Quantitative analysis of the muscle, liver, spleen, and kidney revealed that the levels of Au decreased 45.2%, 28.6%, 41.7%, and 40.8%, respectively, from day 14 to day 90 after the first intravenous injection, indicating that PEG-HAuNS was slowly cleared from these organs in mice.

CONCLUSION

Our data support the use of PEG-HAuNS as a promising photothermal conducting agent.

A universal and multiplex kinase assay using γ-[(18)O(4)]-ATP

We have synthesized γ-[(18)O4]-ATP and used it to develop a non-radioactive and multiplex method. Significantly, this novel approach can be applied to any kinases without using a purified enzyme or a fluorescent substrate. Using this approach, the effectiveness and specificity of inhibitors on several kinases could be readily determined.

Deciphering enzyme function using peptide arrays

Enzymes are key molecules in signal-transduction pathways. However, only a small fraction of more than 500 human kinases, 300 human proteases and 200 human phosphatases is characterised so far. Peptide microarray based technologies for extremely efficient profiling of enzyme substrate specificity emerged in the last years. This technology reduces set-up time for HTS assays and allows the identification of downstream targets. Moreover, peptide microarrays enable optimisation of enzyme substrates. Focus of this review is on assay principles for measuring activities of kinases, phosphatases or proteases and on substrate identification/optimisation for kinases. Additionally, several examples for reliable identification of substrates for lysine methyl-transferases, histone deacetylases and SUMO-transferases are given. Finally, use of high-density peptide microarrays for the simultaneous profiling of kinase activities in complex biological samples like cell lysates or lysates of complete organisms is described. All published examples of peptide arrays used for enzyme profiling are summarised comprehensively.

Electrochemical investigations into Tau protein phosphorylations

Hyperphosphorylation of Tau, a protein that stabilizes microtubules, leads to the breakdown of the microtubular structure and ultimately to the formation of neurofibrillar tangles within neurons. Here, we report monitoring of Tau phosphorylations electrochemically, using Tau protein films chemically linked to gold surfaces and 5'-γ-ferrocenyl (Fc) adenosine triphosphate (Fc-ATP) as a co-substrate. Fc-phosphorylation reactions of Tau are explored using the three protein kinases, glycogen synthase kinase (GSK-3β), sarcoma (Src)-related kinase, and protein kinase A (PKA), which catalyze Fc-phosphorylation of different residues and regions within Tau. The kinetic parameters of the biochemical process (K(M) and V(max)) were determined.

Probing the role of the linker in ferrocene-ATP conjugates: monitoring protein kinase catalyzed phosphorylations electrochemically

The synthesis and electrochemical properties of ferrocene conjugates are presented for the purpose of investigating adenosine 5'-[γ-ferrocenoylalkyl] triphosphate (1 a-4 a, ferrocene (Fc)-ATP) as co-substrates for phosphorylation reactions. Compounds 1 a-4 a were synthesized, purified by HPLC, and characterized by NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. In solution, all Fc-ATP bioconjugates exhibit a reversible one-electron redox process with a half-wave potential (E(1/2)) in the 390-430 mV range, peak separations (ΔE(p)) in the 40-70 mV range, and the peak current ratio (i(pa)/i(pc)) near unity. The peptide-modified surface Glu-Gly-Ile-Tyr-Asp-Val-Pro was used to study the sarcoma-related protein (Src) kinase activity by employing the Fc-ATP bioconjugates as co-substrates. Subsequent kinase-catalyzed transfer of the γ-Fc-phosphate group to the tyrosine residues of the surface-bound peptides was characterized by a formal potential (E°) ≈390 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl). The Fc-coverage, estimated by time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV), suggested validity of Fc-ATP conjugates as kinase co-substrates. Depending on the length of the alkyl spacer of the Fc-ATP conjugate, different current densities were obtained, pointing to a direct correlation between the two. Molecular modeling revealed that the structural constraint imposed by the short alkyl spacer (1 a) causes a steric congestion and negatively affects the outcome of phosphorylation reaction. An optimal analytical response was obtained with the Fc-ATP conjugates with linker lengths longer than six CH(2) groups.

Highly sensitive electrogenerated chemiluminescence biosensor in profiling protein kinase activity and inhibition using gold nanoparticle as signal transduction probes

A novel electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor using gold nanoparticles as signal transduction probes was described for the detection of kinase activity. The gold nanoparticles were specifically conjugated to the thiophosphate group after the phosphorylation process in the presence of adenosine 59-[c-thio] triphosphate (ATP-s) cosubstrate. Due to its good conductivity, large surface area, and excellent electroactivity to luminol oxidization, the gold nanoparticles extremely amplified the ECL signal of luminol, offering a highly sensitive ECL biosensor for kinase activity detection. Protein kinase A (PKA), an important enzyme in regulation of glycogen, sugar, and lipid metabolism in the human body, was used as a model to confirm the proof-of-concept strategy. The as-proposed biosensor presented high sensitivity, low detection limit of 0.07 U mL(-1), wide linear range (from 0.07 to 32 U mL(-1)), and excellent stability. Moreover, this biosensor can also be used for quantitative analysis of kinase inhibition. On the basis of the inhibitor concentration dependent ECL signal, the half-maximal inhibition value IC(50) of ellagic acid, a PKA inhibitor, was estimated, which was in agreement with those characterized with the conventional kinase assay. While nearly no ECL signal change can be observed in the presence of Tyrphostin AG1478, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, but not PKA inhibitor, shows its excellent performance in kinase inhibitor screening. The simple and sensitive biosensor is promising in developing a high-through assay of in vitro kinase activity and inhibitor screening for clinic diagnostic and drug development.

Kinetic dispersion in redox-active dithiocarbamate monolayers

Dithiocarbamates (dtcs) have been implicated as important gold-binding groups in molecular electronics. Dtcs have two alkane branches connected at a single anchoring point that has a bidentate resonance structure. Forming readily in situ by the combination of secondary amines and CS(2), dtcs adsorb quickly onto gold surfaces. Electroactive self-assembled monolayers (eSAMs) were prepared by the coadsorption of ferrocene dialkyldithiocarbamates (Fc dtcs) with diluent dtcs on gold electrodes. Short and long alkane chains were used (11 and 16 methylene groups, respectively), and a polar ester group was incorporated. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) shows that the electrochemistry is quasi-reversible. At high surface coverage, the peak separations and full widths at half-maximum for Fc dtcs deviate from theoretical values and are analogous to that of ferrocene alkane thiols on gold at high surface coverage. Importantly, these features do not change at low Fc dtc surface coverage as observed for ferrocene alkane thiols. Ferrocene dtcs were used to label monolayer defect sites and to demonstrate the exchange of surface-bound dtcs with solution dtcs. Finally, the rate of electron transfer was analyzed using Tafel plots and ac voltammetric methods. The results for both techniques are consistent with a kinetically disperse population of redox sites. The length of the diluent alkane chain appears to have an effect on the distribution of electron-transfer rates, likely because of the eSAM structure. This work indicates that structurally, Fc dtc eSAMs are fundamentally different from alkane thiol SAMs on gold.

Peptide biosensors for the electrochemical measurement of protein kinase activity

The kinase activities are elucidated using the novel redox-active cosubstrate adenosine 5'-[gamma-ferrocene] triphosphate (Fc-ATP), which enables the kinase-catalyzed transfer of a redox active gamma-phosphate-Fc to a hydroxyamino acid. In this report, a versatile electrochemical biosensor is developed for monitoring the activity and inhibition of a serine/threonine kinase, casein kinase 2 (CK2), and protein tyrosine kinases, Abl1-T315I and HER2, in buffered solutions and in cell lysates. The method is based on the labeling of a specific phosphorylation event with Fc, followed by electrochemical detection. The electrochemical response obtained from the "ferrocenylated" peptides enables monitoring the activity of the kinase and its substrate, as well as the inhibition of small molecule inhibitors on protein phosphorylation. Kinetic information was extracted from the electrochemical measurements for the determination of K(m) and V(m) values, which were in agreement with those previously reported. Kinase reactions were also performed in the presence of well-defined inhibitors of CK2, 4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-2-azabenzimidazole, 2-dimethylamino-4,5,6,7-tetrabromo-1H-benzimidazole, and E-3-(2,3,4,5-tetrabromophenyl)acrylic acid as well as the nonspecific kinase inhibitors, staurosporine and N-benzoylstaurosporine. On the basis of the dependency of the Fc signal on inhibitor concentration, K(i) of the inhibitors was estimated, which were also in agreement with the literature values. The performance of the biosensor was optimized including the kinase reaction, incubation with Fc-ATP, and the small molecule inhibitors. Peptide modified electrochemical biosensors are promising candidates for cost-effective in vitro kinase activity and inhibitor screening assays.

Peptide arrays for enzyme profiling

Enzymes are key molecules in signal transduction pathways. However, only a small fraction of more than 500 predicted human kinases, 250 proteases and 250 phosphatases is characterized so far. Peptide microarray-based technologies for extremely efficient profiling of enzyme substrate specificity emerged in the last years. Additionally, patterns of enzymatic activities could be used to fingerprint the status of cells or organisms. This technology reduces set-up time for HTS assays and allows the identification of downstream targets. Moreover, peptide microarrays enable optimization of enzyme substrates. A comprehensive overview regarding enzyme profiling using peptide microarrays is presented with special focus on assay principles.

Rapid identification and high sensitive detection of cancer cells on the gold nanoparticle interface by combined contact angle and electrochemical measurements

In this study, we have proposed a novel strategy for the rapid identification and high sensitive detection of different kinds of cancer cells by means of electrochemical and contact angle measurements. A simple, unlabeled method based on the functionalized Au nanoparticles (GNPs) modified interface has been utilized to distinguish the different cancer cells, including lung cancer cells, liver cancer cells, drug sensitive leukemia K562/B.W cells and drug resistant leukemia K562/ADM cells. The relevant results indicate that under optimal conditions, this method can provide the quantitative determination of cancer cells, with a detection limit of approximately 10(3)cells mL(-1). Our observations demonstrate that the difference in the hydrophilic properties for target cellular surfaces and in the uptake efficiency of the anticancer drug daunorubicin for different cancer cells could be readily chosen as the elements of cancer identification and sensitive detection. This raises the possibility to advance the promising clinic diagnosis and monitoring of tumors with the aim of successful chemotherapy of human cancers.

Following protein kinase acivity by electrochemical means and contact angle measurements

The electrochemical analysis of the protein kinase, casein kinase, is accomplished by the voltammetric response of Ag(+) ions associated with the phosphorylated product; the sensing surface is regenerated by the cleavage of the phosphorylated product with alkaline phosphatase, and the phosphorylation/de-phosphorylation processes are monitored by XPS and contact angle measurements.

Electrochemical detection of kinase-catalyzed phosphorylation using ferrocene-conjugated ATP

Adenosine-5'-[gamma-ferrocene] triphosphate is exploited as a co-substrate for the phosphorylation of the surface-immobilized peptide C-SIYRRGSRRWRKL by protein kinase C, in which the gamma-ferrocene phosphate is transferred to the peptide and then detected by cyclic voltammetry.