1
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Chellali JE, Woodside AJ, Yu Z, Neogi S, Külaots I, Guduru PR, Robinson JR. Access to Stereoblock Polyesters via Irreversible Chain-Transfer Ring-Opening Polymerization (ICT-ROP). J Am Chem Soc 2024. [PMID: 38593434 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c02976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Precise control over polymer microstructure can enable the molecular tunability of material properties and represents a significant challenge in polymer chemistry. Stereoblock copolymers are some of the simplest stereosequenced polymers, yet the synthesis of stereoblock polyesters from prochiral or racemic monomers outside of "simple" isotactic stereoblocks remains limited. Herein, we report the development of irreversible chain-transfer ring-opening polymerization (ICT-ROP), which overcomes the fundamental limitations of single catalyst approaches by using transmetalation (e.g., alkoxide-chloride exchange) between two catalysts with distinct stereoselectivities as a means to embed temporally controlled multicatalysis in ROP. Our combined small-molecule model and catalytic polymerization studies lay out a clear molecular basis for ICT-ROP and are exploited to access the first examples of atactic-syndiotactic stereoblock (at-sb-st) polyesters, at-sb-st polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). We achieve high levels of control over molecular weight, tacticity, monomer composition, and block structures in a temporally controlled manner and demonstrate that stereosequence control leads to polymer tensile properties that are independent of thermal properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan E Chellali
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, 324 Brook St., Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Audra J Woodside
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, 324 Brook St., Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Ziyan Yu
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, 324 Brook St., Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Srijan Neogi
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Indrek Külaots
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Pradeep R Guduru
- School of Engineering, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
| | - Jerome R Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, Brown University, 324 Brook St., Providence, Rhode Island 02912, United States
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2
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Mai J, Kockler K, Parisi E, Chan CM, Pratt S, Laycock B. Synthesis and physical properties of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)-based block copolymers: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 263:130204. [PMID: 38365154 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a group of natural polyesters that are synthesised by microorganisms. In general, their thermoplasticity and (in some forms) their elasticity makes them attractive alternatives to petrochemical-derived polymers. However, the high crystallinity of some PHAs - such as poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB) - results in brittleness and a narrow processing window for applications such as packaging. The production of copolymeric PHA materials is one approach to improving the mechanical and thermal properties of PHAs. Another solution is the manufacture of PHA-based block copolymers. The incorporation of different polymer and copolymer blocks coupled to PHA, and the resulting tailorable microstructure of these block copolymers, can result in a step-change improvement in PHA-based material properties. A range of production strategies for PHA-based block copolymers has been reported in the literature, including biological production and chemical synthesis. Biological production is typically less controllable, with products of a broad molecular weight and compositional distribution, unless finely controlled using genetically modified organisms. By contrast, chemical synthesis delivers relatively controllable block structures and narrowly defined compositions. This paper reviews current knowledge in the areas of the production and properties of PHA-based block copolymers, and highlights knowledge gaps and future potential areas of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingjing Mai
- Fujian Normal University, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, College of Carbon Neutral Modern Industry, Fuzhou, Fujian 350000, China
| | - Katrin Kockler
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemical Engineering, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Emily Parisi
- Parisi Technologies, LLC Portland, Oregon, United States
| | - Clement Matthew Chan
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemical Engineering, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Steven Pratt
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemical Engineering, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Bronwyn Laycock
- The University of Queensland, School of Chemical Engineering, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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3
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Cichoń K, Bak-Sypien II, Basko M, Kost B. Synthesis and Characterization of Functionalized Polylactides Containing Acetal Units. Macromolecules 2023; 56:6951-6967. [PMID: 37720563 PMCID: PMC10501204 DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.3c01343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
New functionalized lactide copolymers containing acetal units were prepared for the first time in a controlled manner that enabled the regulation of the number of reactive groups introduced into the polyester chain. The presence of functional groups in the copolymer backbone provided chemical modification sites, and the nature of the acetal unit affected the material degradability. First, paraformaldehyde was reacted with selected diols containing reactive pendant groups (3-allyloxypropane-1,2-diol and 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol), which was catalyzed by p-toluenesulfonic acid, to synthesize new cyclic acetals with different functionalities (allyl- or chloro-). In addition, using butane-1,4-diol, a nonfunctionalized seven-membered cyclic acetal (dioxepane) was obtained for comparative studies. In the next step, the prepared cyclic acetals were used for cationic copolymerization with lactide in the presence of glycol as an initiator and triflic acid as a catalyst. Different temperatures (-15, 2, and 30 °C) and copolymerization times (24, 48, 72, and 192 h) were investigated to produce copolyesters with variable contents of acetal units in the range of 5-27%. The copolymers' structure and molar masses were carefully investigated using 1H, 13C NMR, 2D NMR, and size-exclusion chromatography. Moreover, the ability of functionalized copolymers to perform post modifications was also proven by the reaction with sodium azide and propanethiol. Finally, we speculate that structurally diverse groups can be attached to the copolyester chain, fine-tuning the on-demand properties, which could rapidly expand the library of polylactide-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Cichoń
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular
Studies Polish Academy of Sciences Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Irena I. Bak-Sypien
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular
Studies Polish Academy of Sciences Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Malgorzata Basko
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular
Studies Polish Academy of Sciences Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Bartłomiej Kost
- Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular
Studies Polish Academy of Sciences Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
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4
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Jing Z, Huang X, Liu X, Liao M, Li Y. Poly(lactide)‐based supramolecular polymers driven by self‐complementary quadruple hydrogen bonds: construction, crystallization and mechanical properties. POLYM INT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.6445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhanxin Jing
- Department of Applied Chemistry College of Chemistry and Environment Guangdong Ocean University, No.1 Haida Road Zhanjiang 524088 China
| | - Xiaolan Huang
- Department of Applied Chemistry College of Chemistry and Environment Guangdong Ocean University, No.1 Haida Road Zhanjiang 524088 China
| | - Xingqi Liu
- Department of Applied Chemistry College of Chemistry and Environment Guangdong Ocean University, No.1 Haida Road Zhanjiang 524088 China
| | - Mingneng Liao
- Department of Applied Chemistry College of Chemistry and Environment Guangdong Ocean University, No.1 Haida Road Zhanjiang 524088 China
| | - Yong Li
- Department of Applied Chemistry College of Chemistry and Environment Guangdong Ocean University, No.1 Haida Road Zhanjiang 524088 China
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5
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Tian T, Feng C, Wang Y, Zhu X, Yuan D, Yao Y. Synthesis of N-Methyl- o-phenylenediamine-Bridged Bis(phenolato) Lanthanide Alkoxides and Their Catalytic Performance for the (Co)Polymerization of rac-Butyrolactone and l-Lactide. Inorg Chem 2022; 61:9918-9929. [PMID: 35723524 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.2c00582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A series of lanthanide alkoxo complexes supported by ONNO salalen ligands were synthesized and characterized. A one-pot reaction of LH2 (L = (2-O-C6H2-tBu2-3,5)CH═N-C6H4-N(CH3)CH2(2-O-C6H2-tBu2-3,5)) with LnCp3(THF) in a 1:1 molar ratio followed by the addition of 1 equiv of ROH (R = Bn, iPr, and CF3CH2), afforded the dimeric lanthanide alkoxo complexes [LLn(μ-OCH2Ph)]2 [Ln = Lu (1), Yb (2), Sm (3), Nd (4)], [L2Yb(μ-OiPr)]2 (5), and [L2Yb(μ-OCH2CF3)]2 (6) in good isolated yields. All these lanthanide complexes were characterized by elemental analysis and FT-IR spectroscopy. In addition, complex 1 has been characterized by NMR spectroscopy. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis of complexes 1, 2, 5, and 6 showed that these lanthanide alkoxo complexes are dimeric in the solid state. Complexes 1-6 showed good activity toward the homopolymerization of rac-butyrolactone (rac-BBL) to give atactic PHB, and ionic radii of central metals have profound influence on the polymerization. The polymerization behavior of l-lactide (l-LA) initiated by complex 2 was also explored. The kinetic study revealed that the polymerizations of rac-BBL and l-LA initiated by salalen lanthanide akoxide are first order for both the monomer and the initiator concentrations. Furthermore, it was found that complexes 1 and 2 showed good activity in the copolymerization of l-LA and rac-BBL, affording gradient copolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Tian
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Dushu Lake Campus, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunping Feng
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Dushu Lake Campus, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
| | - Yaorong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Dushu Lake Campus, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuehua Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Life Science, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Dushu Lake Campus, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingming Yao
- Key Laboratory of Organic Synthesis of Jiangsu Province, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Dushu Lake Campus, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, People's Republic of China
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6
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De Hoe GX, Şucu T, Shaver MP. Sustainability and Polyesters: Beyond Metals and Monomers to Function and Fate. Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:1514-1523. [PMID: 35579567 PMCID: PMC9178795 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Poor waste management and unchecked consumption underpin our current
paradigm of plastics use, which is demonstrably unsustainable in the
long term. Nonetheless, the utility and versatility of plastics suggest
that the notion of a plastic-free society is also unsustainable. Responses
to this conundrum are increasing, and among these are research efforts
focused on the development of more sustainable plastics. This Account,
written by trained chemists, reflects an academic research journey
culminating in an appreciation of the importance of improving and
enabling the overarching systems that plastics exist within. Our primary
initial focus was on catalyst development because catalysts are key
drivers of sustainability by improving the efficiency and ease of
polymerization. Metal catalysts ranging in ligand structure and the
incorporated metal(s) were developed for the preparation of traditional
polyesters such as poly(lactic acid) and polycaprolactone. The central
themes in these works were stereocontrol (tacticity), efficiency (polymerization
rate), and versatility (monomer scope). Alongside insights gained
by systematically varying catalyst structure came impressive results
gained through collaboration, including the remarkably high activity
of novel heterometallic zinc catalysts toward various cyclic esters. This catalysis work was complemented by and slowly transitioned
to a focus on polymer functionality and monomer design. Several fundamental
studies focus on polymer topology, specifically star-shaped polyesters,
tuned arm number, length, and tacticity. These reports feature emphases
on the end of life (solvolysis) and physical properties of polymers,
which were increasingly important themes as work shifted toward new
methods of incorporating functionality in polymers produced by ring-opening
polymerization. Three key highlights demonstrate this shift: the first
two rely upon the exploitation of olefin metathesis (cross- and ring-closing)
to functionalize polyesters or polyethers, and the third involves
the manipulation of ring-opening polymerization equilibrium to enable
selective monomer recovery from a polyester. Our foundational work
on 1,3-dioxolan-4-one (DOX) monomers is then discussed because this
emerging class of molecules offers a distinct synthetic pathway toward
functional polyesters, both conventional and novel. With this DOX
framework, polyesters that are usually challenging to synthesize (e.g.,
poly(mandelic acid)) are accessible because polymerization is driven
by the concomitant, controlled extrusion of small molecules (acetone
or formaldehyde). After these polyester-focused highlights,
the foundation of our
ongoing work is presented, namely, that polymer sustainability must
be viewed from a systems-level perspective, including economic and
social components alongside the environmental considerations. Material
design must be driven by practice, and we have to involve key players
in academia, industry, and government in a concerted effort to enable
positive and robust change. The key goal is to develop sustainable
systems that retain plastics in their highest value state for as long
as possible by designing materials and products for a particular (and
assured) end-of-life fate, whether that be reuse, recycling, (bio)degradation,
or energy recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilhem X. De Hoe
- Department of Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, United Kingdom
- Henry Royce Institute, University of Manchester, Sustainable Materials Innovation Hub, Manchester M13 9BL, United Kingdom
| | - Theona Şucu
- Department of Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, United Kingdom
- Henry Royce Institute, University of Manchester, Sustainable Materials Innovation Hub, Manchester M13 9BL, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Shaver
- Department of Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 3BB, United Kingdom
- Henry Royce Institute, University of Manchester, Sustainable Materials Innovation Hub, Manchester M13 9BL, United Kingdom
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7
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Yang Q, Wang X, Wang B, Liu Y, Sun Y, Na L, Wang F, Zhang C, Liu H, Zhang X. Toward Sustainable and Strong ABA‐Type Thermoplastic Elastomers with Poly(ε‐Caprolactone‐
co
‐4‐Methyl‐ε‐Caprolactone) Soft Midblock and Polystyrene Hard End Blocks. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202000385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Yang
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
| | - Xiaohua Wang
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Changchun 130022 China
- School of Applied Chemistry and Engineering University of Science and Technology of China Hefei 230026 China
| | - Beibei Wang
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry Chinese Academy of Sciences Changchun 130022 China
- School of Applied Chemistry and Engineering University of Science and Technology of China Hefei 230026 China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
| | - Yu Sun
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
| | - Lihua Na
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
| | - Feng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
- Changchun University of Technology Changchun 130012 China
| | - Chunyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
| | - Heng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
| | - Xuequan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Rubber‐Plastics Ministry of Education/Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Rubber‐plastics School of Polymer Science and Engineering Qingdao University of Science and Technology Qingdao 266042 China
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8
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Diaz C, Mehrkhodavandi P. Strategies for the synthesis of block copolymers with biodegradable polyester segments. Polym Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0py01534b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Oxygenated block copolymers with biodegradable polyester segments can be prepared in one-pot through sequential or simultaneous addition of monomers. This review highlights the state of the art in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Diaz
- University of British Columbia
- Department of Chemistry
- Vancouver
- Canada
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9
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Strianese M, Pappalardo D, Mazzeo M, Lamberti M, Pellecchia C. Salen-type aluminum and zinc complexes as two-faced Janus compounds: contribution to molecular sensing and polymerization catalysis. Dalton Trans 2020; 49:16533-16550. [PMID: 33140763 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt02639e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present review is to highlight the most recent achievements in different fields of application of salen-based zinc and aluminum complexes. More specifically this article focuses on the use of aluminum and zinc salen-type complexes as optical probes for biologically relevant molecules, as catalysts for the ring opening polymerization (ROP) of cyclic esters and co-polymerization of epoxides and anhydrides (ROCOP) and in the chemical fixation of carbon dioxide (CO2). The intention is to provide an overview of the most recent results from our group within the framework of the state-of-art-results in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Strianese
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Biologia "Adolfo Zambelli", Università degli Studi di Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy.
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10
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Puthumana M, Santhana Gopala Krishnan P, Nayak SK. Chemical modifications of PLA through copolymerization. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF POLYMER ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/1023666x.2020.1830650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manju Puthumana
- Department of Plastics Technology, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology, Institute of Plastics Technology, Chennai, India
| | - P. Santhana Gopala Krishnan
- Department of Plastics Technology, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology, Institute of Plastics Technology, Chennai, India
| | - Sanjay Kumar Nayak
- Department of Plastics Technology, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology, Institute of Plastics Technology, Chennai, India
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11
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Town JS, Gao Y, Hancox E, Liarou E, Shegiwal A, Atkins CJ, Haddleton D. Automatic peak assignment and visualisation of copolymer mass spectrometry data using the 'genetic algorithm'. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2020; 34 Suppl 2:e8654. [PMID: 31721321 PMCID: PMC7507196 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Copolymer analysis is vitally important as the materials have a wide variety of applications due to their tunable properties. Processing mass spectrometry data for copolymer samples can be very complex due to the increase in the number of species when the polymer chains are formed by two or more monomeric units. In this paper, we describe the use of the genetic algorithm for automated peak assignment of copolymers synthesised by a variety of polymerisation methods. We find that in using this method we are able to easily assign copolymer spectra in a few minutes and visualise them into heat maps. These heat maps allow us to look qualitatively at the distribution of the chains, by showing how they alter with different polymerisation techniques, and by changing the initial copolymer composition. This methodology is simple to use and requires little user input, which makes it well suited for use by less expert users. The data outputted by the automatic assignment may also allow for more complex data processing in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S. Town
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of WarwickWarwick, UK
| | - Yuqui Gao
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of WarwickWarwick, UK
| | - Ellis Hancox
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of WarwickWarwick, UK
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12
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Gruszka W, Walker LC, Shaver MP, Garden JA. In Situ Versus Isolated Zinc Catalysts in the Selective Synthesis of Homo and Multi-block Polyesters. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c00277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Weronika Gruszka
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
| | - Leah C. Walker
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Shaver
- School of Natural Sciences, Department of Materials, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
- Henry Royce Institute, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer A. Garden
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
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13
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Worch JC, Prydderch H, Jimaja S, Bexis P, Becker ML, Dove AP. Stereochemical enhancement of polymer properties. Nat Rev Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1038/s41570-019-0117-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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14
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García-Valle FM, Tabernero V, Cuenca T, Mosquera MEG, Cano J, Milione S. Biodegradable PHB from rac-β-Butyrolactone: Highly Controlled ROP Mediated by a Pentacoordinated Aluminum Complex. Organometallics 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.7b00843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco M. García-Valle
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Instituto de Investigación en Química “Andrés M. del Río” (IQAR), Universidad de Alcalá, Campus Universitario, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Vanessa Tabernero
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Instituto de Investigación en Química “Andrés M. del Río” (IQAR), Universidad de Alcalá, Campus Universitario, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Tomás Cuenca
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Instituto de Investigación en Química “Andrés M. del Río” (IQAR), Universidad de Alcalá, Campus Universitario, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Marta E. G. Mosquera
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Instituto de Investigación en Química “Andrés M. del Río” (IQAR), Universidad de Alcalá, Campus Universitario, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Jesús Cano
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Química Inorgánica, Instituto de Investigación en Química “Andrés M. del Río” (IQAR), Universidad de Alcalá, Campus Universitario, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Stefano Milione
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Biologia “Adolfo Zambelli″/DCB, Università degli Studi di Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 Fisciano, I-84084 Salerno, Italy
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15
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Konwar DB, Sethy S, Satapathy BK, Jacob J. Effect of poly(l-lactide) chain length on microstructural and thermo-mechanical properties of poly(l-lactide)-b-poly(butylene carbonate)-b-poly(l-lactide) triblock copolymers. POLYMER 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2017.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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16
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Nakayama Y, Aihara K, Cai Z, Shiono T, Tsutsumi C. Synthesis and Biodegradation of Poly(l-lactide-co-β-propiolactone). Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E1312. [PMID: 28632154 PMCID: PMC5486133 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18061312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the copolymerizations of l-lactide (LA) with seven- or six-membered ring lactones have been extensively studied, the copolymerizations of LA with four-membered ring lactones have scarcely been reported. In this work, we studied the copolymerization of LA with β-propiolactone (PL) and the properties of the obtained copolymers. The copolymerization of LA with PL was carried out using trifluoromethanesulfonic acid as a catalyst and methanol as an initiator to produce poly(LA-co-PL) with Mn of ~50,000 and PL-content of 6-67 mol %. The Tg values of the copolymers were rapidly lowered with increasing PL-contents. The Tm and ΔHm of the copolymers gradually decreased with increasing PL-contents, indicating their decreased crystallinity. Biodegradation test of the copolymers in compost demonstrated their improved biodegradability in comparison with the homopolymer of LA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuushou Nakayama
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan.
| | - Kazuki Aihara
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan.
| | - Zhengguo Cai
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Material Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
| | - Takeshi Shiono
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan.
| | - Chikara Tsutsumi
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Niihama National College of Technology, Niihama 792-8580, Japan.
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17
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Xu YC, Ren WM, Zhou H, Gu GG, Lu XB. Functionalized Polyesters with Tunable Degradability Prepared by Controlled Ring-Opening (Co)polymerization of Lactones. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b00239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Chao Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine
Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, 2 Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Wei-Min Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Fine
Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, 2 Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Hui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Fine
Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, 2 Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Ge-Ge Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine
Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, 2 Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Xiao-Bing Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Fine
Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, 2 Linggong Road, Dalian 116024, China
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18
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Bai J, Xiao X, Zhang Y, Chao J, Chen X. β-Pyridylenolate zinc catalysts for the ring-opening homo- and copolymerization of ε-caprolactone and lactides. Dalton Trans 2017; 46:9846-9858. [PMID: 28685784 DOI: 10.1039/c7dt01877k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Eleven zinc β-quinolylenolates with varying substituents have been synthesized, and some of these complexes are excellent catalysts for the ring-opening homo- and copolymerization of ε-CL and LAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianliang Bai
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. Shanxi University
- Taiyuan
- China
| | - Xia Xiao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. Shanxi University
- Taiyuan
- China
| | - Yue Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. Shanxi University
- Taiyuan
- China
| | - Jianbin Chao
- Scientific Instrument Center
- Shanxi University
- Taiyuan
- China
| | - Xia Chen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering. Shanxi University
- Taiyuan
- China
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19
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Raycraft BM, MacDonald JP, McIntosh JT, Shaver MP, Gillies ER. Post-polymerization functionalization of poly(ethylene oxide)–poly(β-6-heptenolactone) diblock copolymers to tune properties and self-assembly. Polym Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c6py01785a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Copolymers were synthesized and functionalized with a variety of moieties to tune self-assembly and install drugs or fluorescent dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke M. Raycraft
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials and Biomaterials Research (CAMBR)
- The University of Western Ontario
- London
- Canada N6A 5B7
| | - Jarret P. MacDonald
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials and Biomaterials Research (CAMBR)
- The University of Western Ontario
- London
- Canada N6A 5B7
- School of Chemistry
| | - James T. McIntosh
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials and Biomaterials Research (CAMBR)
- The University of Western Ontario
- London
- Canada N6A 5B7
| | | | - Elizabeth R. Gillies
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials and Biomaterials Research (CAMBR)
- The University of Western Ontario
- London
- Canada N6A 5B7
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering
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20
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Cairns SA, Schultheiss A, Shaver MP. A broad scope of aliphatic polyesters prepared by elimination of small molecules from sustainable 1,3-dioxolan-4-ones. Polym Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7py00254h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
We report a family of monomers that are built from renewable resources and use the elimination of small molecules to access aliphatic polyesters, circumventing challenging monomer syntheses to make these functionalism polymers.
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21
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Ebrahimi T, Aluthge DC, Hatzikiriakos SG, Mehrkhodavandi P. Highly Active Chiral Zinc Catalysts for Immortal Polymerization of β-Butyrolactone Form Melt Processable Syndio-Rich Poly(hydroxybutyrate). Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tannaz Ebrahimi
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of
Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Dinesh C. Aluthge
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of
Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Savvas G. Hatzikiriakos
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of
Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Parisa Mehrkhodavandi
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of
Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
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22
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Sinclair F, Chen L, Greenland BW, Shaver MP. Installing Multiple Functional Groups on Biodegradable Polyesters via Post-Polymerization Olefin Cross-Metathesis. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fern Sinclair
- EastCHEM
School of Chemistry, Joseph Black Building, University of Edinburgh, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
| | - Long Chen
- Reading
School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Barnaby W. Greenland
- Reading
School of Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AP, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Shaver
- EastCHEM
School of Chemistry, Joseph Black Building, University of Edinburgh, David Brewster Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FJ, United Kingdom
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23
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Ali Mohamed A, Salhi S, Abid S, El Gharbi R, Fradet A. Quasi-alternating polyesteramides from ε-caprolactone and α-amino acids. J Appl Polym Sci 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/app.44220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Abdoulkader Ali Mohamed
- Université De Sfax, Faculté Des Sciences, Laboratoire De Chimie Appliquée H.C.G.P; 3038 Sfax Tunisie
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 8232, Institut Parisien De Chimie Moléculaire (IPCM), Chimie Des Polymères; 4 Place Jussieu. F-75005 Paris France
| | - Slim Salhi
- Université De Sfax, Faculté Des Sciences, Laboratoire De Chimie Appliquée H.C.G.P; 3038 Sfax Tunisie
| | - Souhir Abid
- Université De Sfax, Faculté Des Sciences, Laboratoire De Chimie Appliquée H.C.G.P; 3038 Sfax Tunisie
| | - Rachid El Gharbi
- Université De Sfax, Faculté Des Sciences, Laboratoire De Chimie Appliquée H.C.G.P; 3038 Sfax Tunisie
| | - Alain Fradet
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS, UMR 8232, Institut Parisien De Chimie Moléculaire (IPCM), Chimie Des Polymères; 4 Place Jussieu. F-75005 Paris France
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24
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah K. Schneiderman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Marc A. Hillmyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
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25
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Honrado M, Otero A, Fernández-Baeza J, Sánchez-Barba LF, Garcés A, Lara-Sánchez A, Rodríguez AM. Copolymerization of Cyclic Esters Controlled by Chiral NNO-Scorpionate Zinc Initiators. Organometallics 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.5b00919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Honrado
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica,
Orgánica y Bioquímica, Centro de Innovación en
Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Campus Universitario, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Antonio Otero
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica,
Orgánica y Bioquímica, Centro de Innovación en
Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Campus Universitario, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Juan Fernández-Baeza
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica,
Orgánica y Bioquímica, Centro de Innovación en
Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Campus Universitario, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Luis F. Sánchez-Barba
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física
y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, 28933 Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Garcés
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física
y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, 28933 Madrid, Spain
| | - Agustín Lara-Sánchez
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica,
Orgánica y Bioquímica, Centro de Innovación en
Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Campus Universitario, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Ana M. Rodríguez
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica,
Orgánica y Bioquímica, Centro de Innovación en
Química Avanzada (ORFEO-CINQA), Campus Universitario, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
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26
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MacDonald JP, Shaver MP. An aromatic/aliphatic polyester prepared via ring-opening polymerisation and its remarkably selective and cyclable depolymerisation to monomer. Polym Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5py01606a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The ring-opening polymerisation of 2,3-dihydro-5H-1,4-benzodioxepin-5-one gives polyester homopolymers and copolymers that contain both aromatic and aliphatic linkages. The polymers can be easily depolymerised by Al catalysts.
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27
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Fagerland J, Finne-Wistrand A, Pappalardo D. Modulating the thermal properties of poly(hydroxybutyrate) by the copolymerization of rac-β-butyrolactone with lactide. NEW J CHEM 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6nj00298f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Gradient copolymers with different thermal properties of rac-β-butyrolactone and lactide were synthesized through ring opening polymerization using a salan-based yttrium catalyst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenny Fagerland
- Fiber and Polymer Technology
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology
- Stockholm
- Sweden
| | - Anna Finne-Wistrand
- Fiber and Polymer Technology
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology
- Stockholm
- Sweden
| | - Daniela Pappalardo
- Fiber and Polymer Technology
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology
- Stockholm
- Sweden
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie
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28
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Barouti G, Guillaume SM. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)-based triblock copolymers: synthesis of hydrophobic PHB/poly(benzyl β-malolactonate) and amphiphilic PHB/poly(malic acid) analogues by ring-opening polymerization. Polym Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6py00910g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Poly(benzyl β-malolactonate)-b-poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)-b-poly(benzyl β-malolactonate), PMLABe-b-PHB-b-PMLABe, and its analogous poly(β-malic acid), PMLA-b-PHB-b-PMLA, triblock copolymers are synthesized and fully characterized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghislaine Barouti
- Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (ISCR)
- UMR 6226 CNRS - Université de Rennes 1
- Campus de Beaulieu
- F-35042 Rennes Cedex
- France
| | - Sophie M. Guillaume
- Institut des Sciences Chimiques de Rennes (ISCR)
- UMR 6226 CNRS - Université de Rennes 1
- Campus de Beaulieu
- F-35042 Rennes Cedex
- France
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29
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Huang HC, Wang B, Zhang YP, Li YS. Bimetallic aluminum complexes with cyclic β-ketiminato ligands: the cooperative effect improves their capability in polymerization of lactide and ε-caprolactone. Polym Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6py01092j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Novel binuclear aluminum complexes bearing β-ketiminato ligands were synthesized and characterized. The cooperative effect around the metal centers played a key role in improving catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Chao Huang
- Tianjin Key Lab Composite & Functional Materials
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Bin Wang
- Tianjin Key Lab Composite & Functional Materials
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Yan-Ping Zhang
- Tianjin Key Lab Composite & Functional Materials
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
| | - Yue-Sheng Li
- Tianjin Key Lab Composite & Functional Materials
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Tianjin University
- Tianjin 300072
- China
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30
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MacDonald JP, Sidera M, Fletcher SP, Shaver MP. Living and immortal polymerization of seven and six membered lactones to high molecular weights with aluminum salen and salan catalysts. Eur Polym J 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2015.11.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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31
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Wang S, Ding W, Yang G, Robertson ML. Biorenewable Thermoplastic Elastomeric Triblock Copolymers Containing Salicylic Acid-Derived End-Blocks and a Fatty Acid-Derived Midblock. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201500274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shu Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of Houston; 4726 Calhoun Road, S222 Engineering Building 1; University of Houston; Houston TX 77204-4004 USA
| | - Wenyue Ding
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of Houston; 4726 Calhoun Road, S222 Engineering Building 1; University of Houston; Houston TX 77204-4004 USA
| | - Guozhen Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of Houston; 4726 Calhoun Road, S222 Engineering Building 1; University of Houston; Houston TX 77204-4004 USA
| | - Megan L. Robertson
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of Houston; 4726 Calhoun Road, S222 Engineering Building 1; University of Houston; Houston TX 77204-4004 USA
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32
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Gilmour DJ, Webster RL, Perry MR, Schafer LL. Titanium pyridonates for the homo- and copolymerization of rac-lactide and ε-caprolactone. Dalton Trans 2015; 44:12411-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c5dt01162k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A series of titanium pyridonate complexes have been synthesized under very mild reaction conditions from a common precursor, Ti(NMe2)4. These complexes have been explored as initiators for the ring-opening polymerization of rac-lactide and ε-caprolactone and have proven to be competitive with leading titanium initiators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damon J. Gilmour
- Department of Chemistry
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
| | - Ruth L. Webster
- Department of Chemistry
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
| | - Mitchell R. Perry
- Department of Chemistry
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
| | - Laurel L. Schafer
- Department of Chemistry
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
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