CH Mode Mixing Determines the Band Shape of the Carboxylate Symmetric Stretch in Apo-EDTA, Ca2+-EDTA, and Mg2+-EDTA

The infrared spectra of EDTA complexed with Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ contain, to date, unidentified vibrational bands. This study assigns the peaks in the linear and two-dimensional infrared spectra of EDTA, with and without either Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺ ions. Two-dimensional infrared spectroscopy and DFT calculations reveal that, in both the presence and absence of ions, the carboxylate symmetric stretch and the terminal CH bending vibrations mix. We introduce a method to calculate participation coefficients that quantify the contribution of the carboxylate symmetric stretch, CH wag, CH twist, and CH scissor in the 1400-1550 cm^-1 region. With the help of participation coefficients, we assign the 1400-1430 cm^-1 region to the carboxylate symmetric stretch, which can mix with CH modes. We assign the 1000-1380 cm^-1 region to CH twist modes, the 1380-1430 cm^-1 region to wag modes, and the 1420-1650 cm^-1 region to scissor modes. The difference in binding geometry between the carboxylate-Ca²⁺ and carboxylate-Mg²⁺ complex manifests as new diagonal and cross-peaks between the mixed modes in the two complexes. The small Mg²⁺ ion binds EDTA tighter than the Ca²⁺ ion, which causes a redshift of the COO symmetric stretches of the sagittal carboxylates. Energy decomposition analysis further characterizes the importance of electrostatics and deformation energy in the bound complexes.

The KRAS and other prenylated polybasic domain membrane anchors recognize phosphatidylserine acyl chain structure

KRAS interacts with the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane (PM) using a hybrid anchor that comprises a lysine-rich polybasic domain (PBD) and a C-terminal farnesyl chain. Electrostatic interactions have been envisaged as the primary determinant of interactions between KRAS and membranes. Here, we integrated molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and superresolution spatial analysis in mammalian cells and systematically compared four equally charged KRAS anchors: the wild-type farnesyl hexa-lysine and engineered mutants comprising farnesyl hexa-arginine, geranylgeranyl hexa-lysine, and geranylgeranyl hexa-arginine. MD simulations show that these equally charged KRAS mutant anchors exhibit distinct interactions and packing patterns with different phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) species, indicating that prenylated PBD-bilayer interactions extend beyond electrostatics. Similar observations were apparent in intact cells, where each anchor exhibited binding specificities for PtdSer species with distinct acyl chain compositions. Acyl chain composition determined responsiveness of the spatial organization of different PtdSer species to diverse PM perturbations, including transmembrane potential, cholesterol depletion, and PM curvature. In consequence, the spatial organization and PM binding of each KRAS anchor precisely reflected the behavior of its preferred PtdSer ligand to these same PM perturbations. Taken together these results show that small GTPase PBD-prenyl anchors, such as that of KRAS, have the capacity to encode binding specificity for specific acyl chains as well as lipid headgroups, which allow differential responses to biophysical perturbations that may have biological and signaling consequences for the anchored GTPase.

Resolved Structural States of Calmodulin in Regulation of Skeletal Muscle Calcium Release

Calmodulin (CaM) is proposed to modulate activity of the skeletal muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium release channel (ryanodine receptor, RyR1 isoform) via a mechanism dependent on the conformation of RyR1-bound CaM. However, the correlation between CaM structure and functional regulation of RyR in physiologically relevant conditions is largely unknown. Here, we have used time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET) to study structural changes in CaM that may play a role in the regulation of RyR1. We covalently labeled each lobe of CaM (N and C) with fluorescent probes and used intramolecular TR-FRET to assess interlobe distances when CaM is bound to RyR1 in SR membranes, purified RyR1, or a peptide corresponding to the CaM-binding domain of RyR (RyRp). TR-FRET resolved an equilibrium between two distinct structural states (conformations) of CaM, each characterized by an interlobe distance and Gaussian distribution width (disorder). In isolated CaM, at low Ca²⁺, the two conformations of CaM are resolved, centered at 5 nm (closed) and 7 nm (open). At high Ca²⁺, the equilibrium shifts to favor the open conformation. In the presence of RyRp at high Ca²⁺, the closed conformation shifts to a more compact conformation and is the major component. When CaM is bound to full-length RyR1, either purified or in SR membranes, strikingly different results were obtained: 1) the two conformations are resolved and more ordered, 2) the open state is the major component, and 3) Ca²⁺ stabilized the closed conformation by a factor of two. We conclude that the Ca²⁺-dependent structural distribution of CaM bound to RyR1 is distinct from that of CaM bound to RyRp. We propose that the function of RyR1 is tuned to the Ca²⁺-dependent structural dynamics of bound CaM.

The Structural Basis of the Farnesylated and Methylated KRas4B Interaction with Calmodulin

Ca²⁺-calmodulin (CaM) extracts KRas4B from the plasma membrane, suggesting that KRas4B/CaM interaction plays a role in regulating Ras signaling. To gain mechanistic insight, we provide a computational model, supported by experimental structural data, of farnesylated/methylated KRas4B_1-185 interacting with CaM in solution and at anionic membranes including signaling lipids. Due to multiple interaction modes, we observe diverse conformational ensembles of the KRas4B-CaM complex. A highly populated conformation reveals the catalytic domain interacting with the N-lobe and the hypervariable region (HVR) wrapping around the linker with the farnesyl docking to the extended CaM's C-lobe pocket. Alternatively, KRas4B can interact with collapsed CaM with the farnesyl penetrating CaM's center. At anionic membranes, CaM interacts with the catalytic domain with large fluctuations, drawing the HVR. Signaling lipids establishing strong salt bridges with CaM prevent membrane departure. Membrane-interacting KRas4B-CaM complex can productively recruit phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase α (PI3Kα) to the plasma membrane, serving as a coagent in activating PI3Kα/Akt signaling.

Analyzing protein-ligand and protein-interface interactions using high pressure

All protein function is based on interactions with the environment. Proteins can bind molecules for their transport, their catalytic conversion, or for signal transduction. They can bind to each other, and they adsorb at interfaces, such as lipid membranes or material surfaces. An experimental characterization is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms, but also to make use of proteins in biotechnology or biomedicine. When protein interactions are studied under high pressure, volume changes are revealed that directly describe spatial contributions to these interactions. Moreover, the strength of protein interactions with ligands or interfaces can be tuned in a smooth way by pressure modulation, which can be utilized in the design of drugs and bio-responsive interfaces. In this short review, selected studies of protein-ligand and protein-interface interactions are presented that were carried out under high pressure. Furthermore, a perspective on bio-responsive interfaces is given where protein-ligand binding is applied to create functional interfacial structures.

Interrogating the Structural Dynamics and Energetics of Biomolecular Systems with Pressure Modulation

High hydrostatic pressure affects the structure, dynamics, and stability of biomolecular systems and is a key parameter in the context of the exploration of the origin and the physical limits of life. This review lays out the conceptual framework for exploring the conformational fluctuations, dynamical properties, and activity of biomolecular systems using pressure perturbation. Complementary pressure-jump relaxation studies are useful tools to study the kinetics and mechanisms of biomolecular phase transitions and structural transformations, such as membrane fusion or protein and nucleic acid folding. Finally, the advantages of using pressure to explore biomolecular assemblies and modulate enzymatic reactions are discussed.

Cm3+/Eu3+induced structural, mechanistic and functional implications for calmodulin

Trivalent lanthanide and actinide can strongly bind to calmodulin (CaM). The global structure of Ln/An-bound CaM were found to be similar to Ca-CaM but the local environment around Ln/An is distorted giving less structural rigidity to Ln/An-CaM.

The Periodic Table's Impact on Bioinorganic Chemistry and Biology's Selective Use of Metal Ions

Despite the availability of a vast variety of metal ions in the periodic table, biology uses only a selective few metal ions. Most of the redox active metals used belong to the first row of transition metals in the periodic table and include Fe, Co, Ni, Mn and Cu. On the other hand, Ca, Zn and Mg are the most commonly used redox inactive metals in biology. In this chapter, we discuss the periodic table's impact on bio-inorganic chemistry, by exploring reasons behind this selective choice of metals biology. A special focus is placed on the chemical and functional reasons why one metal ion is preferred over another one. We discuss the implications of metal choice in various biological processes including catalysis, electron transfer, redox sensing and signaling. We find that bioavailability of metal ions along with their redox potentials, coordination flexibility, valency and ligand affinity determine the specificity of metals for biological processes. Understanding the implications underlying the selective choice of metals of the periodic table in these biological processes can help design more efficient catalysts, more precise biosensors and more effective drugs.

Structural dynamics of calmodulin-ryanodine receptor interactions: electron paramagnetic resonance using stereospecific spin labels

We have used electron paramagnetic resonance, with rigid and stereospecific spin labels, to resolve structural states in calmodulin (CaM), as affected by binding of Ca and a CaM-binding peptide (RyRp) derived from the ryanodine receptor (RyR), the Ca channel that triggers muscle contraction. CaM mutants containing a pair of cysteines in the N-lobe and/or C-lobe were engineered and labeled with a stereospecifically bound bifunctional spin label (BSL). RyRp was synthesized with and without TOAC (a stereospecifically attached spin-labeled amino acid) substituted for a single amino acid near the N-terminus. Intramolecular DEER distance measurements of doubly-labeled BSL-CaM revealed that CaM exists in dynamic equilibrium among multiple states, consistent with open, closed, and compact structural models. Addition of RyRp shifted the equilibrium partially toward the compact state in the absence of Ca, and completely toward the compact state in the presence of Ca, supporting a conformational selection model. Inter-protein distance measurements show that Ca stabilizes the compact state primarily by inducing ordered binding of the CaM N-lobe to RyRp, while only slightly affecting the C-lobe. The results provide insight into the structural mechanism of CaM-mediated RyR regulation, while demonstrating the power of using two types of rigidly and stereospecifically bound spin labels.

A high pressure study of calmodulin-ligand interactions using small-angle X-ray and elastic incoherent neutron scattering

Calmodulin (CaM) is a Ca²⁺ sensor and mediates Ca²⁺ signaling through binding of numerous target ligands. The binding of ligands by Ca²⁺-saturated CaM (holo-CaM) is governed by attractive hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions that are weakened under high pressure in aqueous solutions. Moreover, the potential formation of void volumes upon ligand binding creates a further source of pressure sensitivity. Hence, high pressure is a suitable thermodynamic variable to probe protein-ligand interactions. In this study, we compare the binding of two different ligands to holo-CaM as a function of pressure by using X-ray and neutron scattering techniques. The two ligands are the farnesylated hypervariable region (HVR) of the K-Ras4B protein, which is a natural binding partner of holo-CaM, and the antagonist trifluoperazine (TFP), which is known to inhibit holo-CaM activity. From small-angle X-ray scattering experiments performed up to 3000 bar, we observe a pressure-induced partial unfolding of the free holo-CaM in the absence of ligands, where the two lobes of the dumbbell-shaped protein are slightly swelled. In contrast, upon binding TFP, holo-CaM forms a closed globular conformation, which is pressure stable at least up to 3000 bar. The HVR of K-Ras4B shows a different binding behavior, and the data suggest the dissociation of the holo-CaM/HVR complex under high pressure, probably due to a less dense protein contact of the HVR as compared to TFP. The elastic incoherent neutron scattering experiments corroborate these findings. Below 2000 bar, pressure induces enhanced atomic fluctuations in both holo-CaM/ligand complexes, but those of the holo-CaM/HVR complex seem to be larger. Thus, the inhibition of holo-CaM by TFP is supported by a low-volume ligand binding, albeit this is not associated with a rigidification of the complex structure on the sub-ns Å-scale.

Antagonistic effects of natural osmolyte mixtures and hydrostatic pressure on the conformational dynamics of a DNA hairpin probed at the single-molecule level

Osmolyte mixtures from deep sea organisms are able to rescue nucleic acids from pressure-induced unfolding.

Phosphorylated Calmodulin Promotes PI3K Activation by Binding to the SH2 Domains

How calmodulin (CaM) acts in KRAS-driven cancers is a vastly important question. CaM binds to and stimulates PI3Kα/Akt signaling, promoting cell growth and proliferation. Phosphorylation of CaM at Tyr⁹⁹ (pY99) enhances PI3Kα activation. PI3Kα is a lipid kinase. It phosphorylates PIP₂ to produce PIP₃, to which Akt binds. PI3Kα has two subunits: the regulatory p85 and the catalytic p110. Here, exploiting explicit-solvent MD simulations we unveil key interactions between phosphorylated CaM (pCaM) and the two SH2 domains in the p85 subunit, confirm experimental observations, and uncover PI3Kα's mechanism of activation. pCaMs form strong and stable interactions with both nSH2 and cSH2 domains, with pY99 being the dominant contributor. Despite the high structural similarity between the two SH2 domains, we observe that nSH2 prefers an extended CaM conformation, whereas cSH2 prefers a collapsed conformation. Notably, collapsed CaM is observed after binding of an extended CaM to K-Ras4B. Thus, the more populated extended pCaM conformation targets nSH2 to release its autoinhibition of p110 catalytic sites. This executes the key activation step of PI3Kα. Independently, K-Ras4B allosterically activates p110. These events are at the cell membrane, which contributes to tighten the PI3Kα Ras binding domain/K-Ras4B interaction, to accomplish K-Ras4B allosteric activation, with a minor contribution from cSH2.

Bioresponsive interfaces composed of calmodulin and poly(ethylene glycol): Toggling the interfacial film thickness by protein-ligand binding

Responsive interfaces are often realized by polymer films that change their structure and properties upon changing the pH-value, ionic strength or temperature. Here, we present a bioresponsive interfacial structure that is based on a protein, calmodulin (CaM), which undergoes a huge conformational change upon ligand binding. At first, we characterize the conformational functionality of a double Cys mutant of CaM by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The CaM mutant is then used to cross-link poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) chains, which are bound covalently to a supporting planar Si surface. These films are characterized by X-ray reflectometry (XR) in a humidity chamber providing full hydration. It is well known that Ca²⁺-saturated holo-CaM binds trifluoperazine (TFP) and changes its conformation from an open, dumbbell-shaped to a closed, globular one in solution. At the interface, we observe an increase of the PEG-CaM film thickness, when TFP is binding and inducing the closed conformation, whereas the removal of Ca²⁺-ions and a concomitant release of TFP is associated with a decrease of the film thickness. This toggling of the film thickness is largely reversible. In this way, a structural change of the interface is achieved via protein functionality which has the advantage of being selective for ligand molecules without changing the environmental conditions in a harsh way via physico-chemical parameters.

Flexible-body motions of calmodulin and the farnesylated hypervariable region yield a high-affinity interaction enabling K-Ras4B membrane extraction

In calmodulin (CaM)-rich environments, oncogenic KRAS plays a critical role in adenocarcinomas by promoting PI3K/Akt signaling. We previously proposed that at elevated calcium levels in cancer, CaM recruits PI3Kα to the membrane and extracts K-Ras4B from the membrane, organizing a K-Ras4B-CaM-PI3Kα ternary complex. CaM can thereby replace a missing receptor-tyrosine kinase signal to fully activate PI3Kα. Recent experimental data show that CaM selectively promotes K-Ras signaling but not of N-Ras or H-Ras. How CaM specifically targets K-Ras and how it extracts it from the membrane in KRAS-driven cancer is unclear. Obtaining detailed structural information for a CaM-K-Ras complex is still challenging. Here, using molecular dynamics simulations and fluorescence experiments, we observed that CaM preferentially binds unfolded K-Ras4B hypervariable regions (HVRs) and not α-helical HVRs. The interaction involved all three CaM domains including the central linker and both lobes. CaM specifically targeted the highly polybasic anchor region of the K-Ras4B HVR that stably wraps around CaM's acidic linker. The docking of the farnesyl group to the hydrophobic pockets located at both CaM lobes further enhanced CaM-HVR complex stability. Both CaM and K-Ras4B HVR are highly flexible molecules, suggesting that their interactions permit highly dynamic flexible-body motions. We, therefore, anticipate that the flexible-body interaction is required to extract K-Ras4B from the membrane, as conformational plasticity enables CaM to orient efficiently to the polybasic HVR anchor, which is partially diffused into the liquid-phase membrane. Our structural model of the CaM-K-Ras4B HVR association provides plausible clues to CaM's regulatory action in PI3Kα activation involving the ternary complex in cell proliferation signaling by oncogenic K-Ras.

Building Polyelectrolyte Multilayers with Calmodulin: A Neutron and X-ray Reflectivity Study

We have studied the formation and functional properties of polyelectrolyte multilayers where calmodulin (CaM) is used as a polyanion. CaM is known to populate distinct conformational states upon binding Ca²⁺ and small ligand molecules. Therefore, we have also probed the effects of Ca²⁺ ions and trifluoperazine (TFP) as ligand molecule on the interfacial structures. Multilayers with the maximum sequence PEI-(PSS-PAH)_x-CaM-PAH-CaM-PAH have been deposited on silicon wafers and characterized by X-ray and neutron reflectometry. From the analysis of all data, several remarkable conclusions can be drawn. When CaM is deposited for the second time, a much thicker sublayer is produced than in the first CaM deposition step. However, upon rinsing with PAH, very thin CaM-PAH sublayers remain. There are no indications that ligand TFP can be involved in the multilayer buildup due to strong CaM-PAH interactions. However, there is a significant increase in the multilayer thickness upon removal of Ca²⁺ ions from holo-CaM and an equivalent decrease in the multilayer thickness upon subsequent saturation of apo-CaM with Ca²⁺ ions. Presumably, CaM can still be toggled between an apo and a holo state, when it is embedded in polyelectrolyte multilayers, providing an approach to design bioresponsive interfaces.