How to Achieve Hydrogenation/Hydrofunctionalization via Metal Hydride Complexes

ConspectusMetal hydride (M-H) complexes have garnered widespread attention in the synthesis of fine chemicals, materials, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals owing to the remarkable reactivity of the M-H bonds. Specifically, M-H complexes are active intermediates that catalyze hydrogen-transfer reactions, leading to efficient hydrogenation and hydrofunctionalization of C═C/C═X (X = O or N) bonds in unsaturated organic substrates for the formation of new carbon-hydrogen, carbon-carbon, and carbon-heteroatom bonds.Our research group has long studied M-H transformation mechanisms, with significant advancements over the past decade. For this Account, we have drawn on our extensive expertise to investigate the mechanisms governing numerous M-H transformation-driven reactions, including the hydrogenation of inert C═X bonds in unsaturated compounds, the hydrofunctionalization of C═C/C═X bonds, dehydrogenative coupling, and C-H functionalizations. On the basis of these mechanistic investigations, we developed a series of representative M-H transformation models, which offer robust theoretical guidance for modulating the reactivity and selectivity of M-H complexes in hydrogenation and hydrofunctionalization.Our Account begins with the structures and properties of M-H complexes, which lead to homolytic and heterolytic cleavage in reactions with different conditions, showcasing the remarkable versatility of metal hydride reactivity. Based on these principles, three transformation modes are discussed. First, hydride transfer of low-oxidation-state M-H complexes is chiefly engaged because the hydrogen atom attached to the metal has a high electron density and is strongly nucleophilic. In this case, a hydrogen atom serves as a hydride to transfer from the metal center to the electropositive center of the substrate through the following pathways: (a) insertion of an unsaturated bond into the M-H bond; (b) direct hydride transfer from the metal center to the electrophilic site of an unsaturated bond; (c) σ-bond metathesis; and (d) oxidative hydrogen migration. Reductive elimination might also occur when the oxidation state of the metal center increases and the metal center becomes electron-deficient. This usually regenerates the low-oxidation-state catalytic species while producing C/X'-H bonds. Notably, metal hydride hydrogen atom transfer (MHAT) is an advanced approach to radical-type hydrofunctionalizations. MHAT is usually induced by (a) a one-electron redox process enabled by a paramagnetic metal or (b) low M-H bond dissociation energy (BDE) values. Two possible types of MHAT (i.e., spontaneous and passive), which lead to different regioselectivities, are proposed. This article provides a detailed account of the strategies and mechanisms related to the reactivity and selectivity of M-H bond transformations, thus offering valuable guidance for the rational design of novel M-H complexes and reaction systems.

Chelating-Group-Assisted C(sp2)-O Reductive Elimination at the Gold(III) Center

Herein, we demonstrate chelating-group-assisted C(sp2)-O reductive elimination at gold(III) centers. Detailed stoichiometric studies highlighted the importance of a chelating group for achieving successful C-O reductive elimination, paving the way for the development of a catalytic version. The mechanistic investigations, including control experiments, 31P NMR, mass spectrometry, and density functional theory (DFT) studies, suggested that the synergistic effect of the ligand and chelating group creates a highly coordinated environment around the Au(III) center to facilitate the C(sp2)-O bond-forming reaction.

Magnesium-promoted nickel-catalysed chlorination of aryl halides and triflates under mild conditions

In this study, we present a ligand-free nickel(II)-catalyzed halogen exchange of aromatic halides with magnesium chloride. This method effectively facilitates the retro-Finkelstein reaction for a wide range of aryl bromides, iodides and triflates, demonstrating excellent functional group tolerance. Mechanistic studies reveal that magnesium plays a crucial role in the challenging reductive elimination from Ni(II) intermediates.

Efficient C(sp3)-P(V) bond cleavage and reconstruction of free α-aminophosphonates via palladium catalysis

Transition metal-catalyzed cleavage and reconstruction of the C-P bond provides a highly efficient and rapid method for the transformation of organophosphine compounds. In this study, a novel and general protocol for the palladium-catalyzed C(sp3)-P(V) bond cleavage of free α-aminophosphonates and subsequent functionalization via C-P bond recombination has been developed. The reaction exhibits high reactivity between the C(sp3)-P bond and halides, accommodating a wide range of substrates and enabling the rapid synthesis of aryl, alkenyl, and alkyl organophosphine molecules. Additionally, the synthetic utility is validated by gram-scale synthesis, and the reaction process is corroborated by mechanistic experiments.

Applications of low-valent compounds with heavy group-14 elements

Over the last two decades, the low-valent compounds of group-14 elements have received significant attention in several fields of chemistry owing to their unique electronic properties. The low-valent group-14 species include tetrylenes, tetryliumylidene, tetrylones, dimetallenes and dimetallynes. These low-valent group-14 species have shown applications in various areas such as organic transformations (hydroboration, cyanosilylation, N-functionalisation of amines, and hydroamination), small molecule activation (e.g. P4, As4, CO2, CO, H2, alkene, and alkyne) and materials. This review presents an in-depth discussion on low-valent group-14 species-catalyzed reactions, including polymerization of rac-lactide, L-lactide, DL-lactide, and caprolactone, followed by their photophysical properties (phosphorescence and fluorescence), thin film deposition (atomic layer deposition and vapor phase deposition), and medicinal applications. This review concisely summarizes current developments of low-valent heavier group-14 compounds, covering synthetic methodologies, structural aspects, and their applications in various fields of chemistry. Finally, their opportunities and challenges are examined and emphasized.

Reactivity umpolung (reversal) of ligands in transition metal complexes

The success and power of homogeneous catalysis derives in large part from the wide choice of transition metal ions and their ligands. This tutorial review introduces examples where the reactivity of a ligand is completely reversed (umpolung) from Lewis basic/nucleophilic to acidic/electrophilic or vice versa on changing the metal and co-ligands. Understanding this phenomenon will assist in the rational design of catalysts and the understanding of metalloenzyme mechanisms. Labelling a metal and ligand with Seebach donor and acceptor labels helps to identify whether a reaction involving the intermolecular attack on the ligand is displaying native reactivity or reactivity umpolung. This has been done for complexes of nitriles, carbonyls, isonitriles, dinitrogen, Fischer carbenes, alkenes, alkynes, hydrides, methyls, methylidenes and alkylidenes, silylenes, oxides, imides/nitrenes, alkylidynes, methylidynes, and nitrides. The electronic influence of the metal and co-ligands is discussed in terms of the energy of (HOMO) d electrons. The energy can be related to the pKLACa (LAC is ligand acidity constant) of the theoretical hydride complexes [H-[M]-L]+ formed by the protonation of pair of valence d electrons on the metal in the [M-L] complex. Preliminary findings indicate that a negative pKLACa indicates that nucleophilic attack by a carbanion or amine on the ligand will likely occur while a positive pKLACa indicates that electrophilic attack by strong acids on the ligand will usually occur when the ligand is nitrile, carbonyl, isonitrile, alkene and η6-arene.

Structural Design Principle of Rocksalt Oxides for Li-Excess Cathode Materials

Li-excess oxide cathodes have received increasing attention due to their high capacity derived from accumulated cation and anion redox activity. However, Li-excess layered oxides suffer from capacity and voltage decay due to the irreversible phase transition, while cation-disordered cathodes also have the problems of poor cycling stability and rate capability. The rocksalt oxides with a layered-disordered coexistence nanostructure can combine the advantages of both phases such as the inherent high capacity of Li-excess oxides, good rate capability of the layered phase, and structural stability resulting from the intergrown disordered phase. Herein, for rational design, we developed a descriptor by correlating the ionic radius and electronic configuration to predict layered, cation-disordered, and coexistent structures of Li-excess cathode materials. Accordingly, we experimentally synthesized Li1.2Ni0.4Mn0.2Nb0.2O2 oxide with a coexistent structure in which the layered and disordered phases are well combined in the nanoscale region, achieving a high capacity (312 mAh g-1) with good cycling stability and rate capability. The design principle with composition predicting structure provides a valuable strategy in controllably designing and preparing Li-excess cathode materials.

Intermolecular Carbophosphination of Alkynes with Phosphole Oxides via Ni-Al Bimetal-Catalyzed C-P Bond Activation

Intermolecular carbophosphination reaction of alkynes or alkenes with unreactive C-P bonds remains an elusive challenge. Herein, we used a Ni-Al bimetallic catalyst to realize an intermolecular carbophosphination reaction of alkynes with 5-membered phosphole oxides, providing a series of 7-membered phosphepines in up to 94 % yield.

Mn(iii)-mediated C-P bond activation of diphosphines: toward a highly emissive phosphahelicene cation scaffold and modulated circularly polarized luminescence

Transition metal mediated C-X (X = H, halogen) bond activation provides an impressive protocol for building polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in C-C bond coupling and annulation; however, mimicking both the reaction model and Lewis acid mediator simultaneously in a hetero-PAH system for selective C-P bond cleavage faces unsolved challenges. At present, developing the C-P bond activation protocol of the phosphonic backbone using noble-metal complexes is a predominant passway for the construction of phosphine catalysts and P-center redox-dependent photoelectric semiconductors, but non-noble metal triggered methods are still elusive. Herein, we report Mn(iii)-mediated C-P bond activation and intramolecular cyclization of diphosphines by a redox-directed radical phosphonium process, generating phosphahelicene cations or phosphoniums with nice regioselectivity and substrate universality under mild conditions. Experiments and theoretical calculations revealed the existence of the unusual radical mechanism and electron-deficient character of novel phosphahelicenes. These rigid quaternary bonding skeletons facilitated versatile fluorescence with good tunability and excellent efficiency. Moreover, the enantiomerically enriched crystals of phosphahelicenes emitted intense circularly polarized luminescence (CPL). Notably, the modulated CPL of racemic phosphahelicenes was induced by chiral transmission in the cholesteric mesophase, showing ultrahigh asymmetry factors of CPL (+0.51, -0.48). Our findings provide a new approach for the design of emissive phosphahelicenes towards chiral emitters and synthesized precursors.

Revised Mechanism of C(sp3)-C(sp3) Reductive Elimination from Ni(II) with the Assistance of a Z-Type Metalloligand

Reductive elimination is a key step in Ni-catalyzed cross-couplings. Compared with processes that proceed from Ni(III) or Ni(IV) intermediates, C(sp³)-C(sp³) reductive eliminations from Ni(II) centers are challenging due to the weak oxidizing ability of Ni(II) species. In this report, we present computational evidence that supports a mechanism in which Zn coordination to the nickel center as a Z-type ligand accelerates reductive elimination. This Zn-assisted pathway is found to be lower in energy compared with direct reductive elimination from a σ-coordinated Ni(II) intermediate, providing new insights into the mechanism of Ni-catalyzed cross-coupling with organozinc nucleophiles. Mayer bond order, Hirshfield charge, Laplacian of the electron density, orbital, and interaction region indicator analyses were conducted to elucidate details of the reductive elimination process and characterize the key intermediates. Theoretical calculations indicate a significant Z-type Ni-Zn interaction that reduces the electron density around the Ni center and accelerates reductive elimination. This mechanistic study of reductive elimination in Ni(0)-catalyzed conjunctive cross-couplings of aryl iodides, organozinc reagents, and alkenes is an important case study of the involvement of Zn-assisted reductive elimination in Ni catalysis. We anticipate that the novel Zn-assisted reductive elimination mode may extend to other cross-coupling processes and explain the unique effectiveness of organozinc nucleophiles in many instances.

Pd0 -Catalyzed Asymmetric Carbonitratation Reaction Featuring an H-Bonding-Driven Alkyl-PdII -ONO2 Reductive Elimination

Reductive elimination of alkyl-Pd^II -O is a synthetically useful yet underdeveloped elementary reaction. Here we report that the combination of an H-bonding donor [PyH][BF₄ ] and AgNO₃ additive under toluene/H₂ O biphasic system can enable such elementary step to form alkyl nitrate. This results in the Pd⁰ -catalyzed asymmetric carbonitratations of (Z)-1-iodo-1,6-dienes with (R)-BINAP as the chiral ligand, affording alkyl nitrates up to 96 % ee. Mechanistic studies disclose that the reaction consists of oxidative addition of Pd⁰ catalyst to vinyl iodide, anion ligand exchange between I^- and NO₃ ^- , alkene insertion and S_N 2-type alkyl-Pd^II -ONO₂ reductive elimination. Evidences suggest that H-bonding interaction of PyH⋅⋅⋅ONO₂ can facilitate dissociation of O₂ NO^- ligand from the alkyl-Pd^II -ONO₂ species, thus enabling the challenging alkyl-Pd^II -ONO₂ reductive elimination to be feasible.

Highly Regioselective and Ligand-Controlled Diastereodivergent Aminomethylative Annulation of Dienyl Alcohols Enabled by Hydrogen-Bonding Assisting Effect

A ligand-controlled palladium-catalyzed highly regioselective and diastereodivergent aminomethylative annulation of dienyl alcohols with aminals has been established, which allows for producing either cis- or trans-disubstituted isochromans in good yields with...

Rh(III)-Catalyzed Chemoselective C-H Alkenylation and [5 + 1] Annulation with Gem-Difluoromethylene Enabled by the Distinctive Fluorine Effect

The efficient couplings of diverse N-arylureas and gem-difluoromethylene alkynes have been realized via Rh(III)-catalyzed chemoselective C-H alkenylation and [5 + 1] annulation, which were induced by the distinctive fluorine effect to provide the different coordination mode of the Rh(III) catalyst binding to the directing group, thereby giving the direct access to difluorinated 2-alkenyl arylureas and 3,4-dihydroquinazolin-2(1H)-ones bearing both an α-quaternary carbon center and a monofluoroalkenyl moiety with broad substrate compatibility and good functional group tolerance. The synthetic application in C-H alkenylation of the N-pyridylaniline, the late-stage [3 + 2] annulation, and the derivation of the obtained products has been also demonstrated to further strengthen the synthetic utility of the chemodivergent transformations.

Decarboxylative Addition of Propiolic Acids with Indoles to Synthesize Bis(indolyl)methane Derivatives with a Pd(II)/LA Catalyst

Exploring new protocols for efficient organic synthesis is crucial for pharmaceutical developments. The present work introduces a Pd(II)/LA-catalyzed (LA: Lewis acid) decarboxylative addition reaction for the synthesis of bis(indolyl)methane derivatives. The presence of Lewis acid such as Sc(OTf)₃ triggered Pd(II)-catalyzed decarboxylative addition of propiolic acids with indoles to offer the bis(indolyl)methane derivatives in moderate to good yields, whereas neither Pd(II) nor Lewis acid alone was active for this synthesis. The catalytic efficiency of Pd(OAc)₂ was highly dependent on the Lewis acidity of the added Lewis acid, that is, a stronger Lewis acid provided a higher yield of the bis(indolyl)methane derivatives. Meanwhile, this Pd(II)/LA-catalyzed decarboxylative addition reaction showed good tolerance toward versatile electron-rich or -deficient substituents on the indole skeleton and on the benzyl ring of propiolic acids. The studies on the in situ ¹H NMR kinetics of this Pd(II)/Sc(III) catalysis disclosed the formation of a transient vinyl-Pd(II)/Sc(III) intermediate generated by the pyrrole addition to the alkynyl-Pd(II)/Sc(III) species after decarboxylation, which was scarcely observed before.

Rh(III)-Catalyzed Redox-Neutral C-H Activation/[3 + 2] Annulation of N-Phenoxy Amides with Propargylic Monofluoroalkynes

An efficient and redox-neutral Rh(III)-catalyzed C-H activation/[3 + 2] annulation of N-phenoxy amides with propargylic monofluoroalkynes has been realized to afford 3-alkylidene dihydrobenzofurans with an interesting α-quaternary carbon center. Combined experimental and computational mechanistic studies revealed that a Rh(III)-Rh(V)-Rh(III) catalytic pathway/uncatalyzed intramolecular [H···F] bonding-assisted S_N2'-type substitution cascade might be involved in the catalytic cycle, thereby enabling an excellent site-/regioselectivity with broad substrate/functional group compatibility, including the complete retention of the highly strained cyclobutyl structure in the 3-position.

Enthalpy-Controlled Insertion of a "Nonspectator" Tricoordinate Phosphorus Ligand into Group 10 Transition Metal-Carbon Bonds

Insertion of a tricoordinate phosphorus ligand into late metal-carbon bonds is reported. Metalation of a P^P-chelating ligand (L1), composed of a nontrigonal phosphorous (i.e., P(III)) triamide moiety, P(N(o-N(Ar)C6H4)2, tethered by a phenylene linker to a -PiPr2 anchor, with group 10 complexes L2M(Me)Cl (M = Ni, Pd) results in insertion of the nontrigonal phosphorus site into the metal-methyl bond. The stable methylmetallophosphorane compounds thus formed are characterized spectroscopically and crystallographically. Metalation of L1 with (cod)PtII(Me)(Cl) does not lead to a metallophosphorane but rather to the standard bisphosphine chelate (κ2-L1)Pt(Me)(Cl). These divergent reactivities within group 10 are rationalized by reference to periodic variation in M-C bond enthalpies.

Assembly of Indole Cores through a Palladium-Catalyzed Metathesis of Ar-X σ-Bonds

We describe the development of a new method for construction of highly substituted indole scaffolds through the strategic utilizing of the metathesis of Ar-X σ-bonds based on the dynamic nature of palladium-based oxidative addition/reductive elimination. A suitable and simple catalytic system has provided an appropriate platform for a productive ligand exchange and consecutive carbopalladation/C-H activation/amination of phosphine ligands with alkynes and aromatic/aliphatic amines for construction of structurally diverse indoles.

Toward prediction of the precatalyst activation mechanism through the cross-coupling reactions: Reduction of Pd(II) to Pd(0) in precatalyst of the type Pd-PEPPSI

Pd-PEPPSI type complexes are widely used as precatalyst in a variety of organic reactions, including the Negishi, Kumada and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions. The aim of this research is to determine potential proposed reaction pathways 1, 2, or 2' (See Schemes 1 and S1-S4) for Pd-PEPPSI precatalyst activation in the presence of ethylene glycol as a solvent also in the gas phase at Cam-B3LYP-D3 method nominated among eight DFT methods examined. There is also investigation into the impact of promoter bases (NaOEt, NaOⁱ Pr, NaO^t Bu) on precatalyst activation of Pd-PEPPSI. Eventually, the most favorable proposed reaction pathway and promoter base for reducing Pd(II) to Pd(0) are predicted computationally. Notably, our findings are consistent with the organ Pd-PEPPSI type complexes that offer increased catalytic activity and provide basic information in the presence of solvents designing the monoligated Pd(0)-solvent.

Cu-Catalyzed P-C bond formation/cleavage: straightforward synthesis/ring-expansion of strained cyclic phosphoniums

Upon reaction with copper(i), peri-halo naphthyl phosphines readily form peri-bridged naphthyl phosphonium salts. The reaction works with alkyl, aryl and amino substituents at phosphorus, with iodine, bromine and chlorine as a halogen. It proceeds under mild conditions and is quantitative, despite the strain associated with the resulting 4-membered ring structure and the naphthalene framework. The transformation is amenable to catalysis. Under optimized conditions, the peri-iodo naphthyl phosphine 1-I is converted into the corresponding peri-bridged naphthyl phosphonium salt 2b in only 5 minutes at room temperature using 1 mol% of CuI. Based on DFT calculations, the reaction is proposed to involve a Cu(i)/Cu(iii) cycle made of P-coordination, C-X oxidative addition and P-C reductive elimination. This copper-catalyzed route gives a general and efficient access to peri-bridged naphthyl phosphonium salts for the first time. Reactivity studies could thus be initiated and the possibility to insert gold into the strained P-C bond was demonstrated. It leads to (P,C)-cyclometallated gold(iii) complexes. According to experimental observations and DFT calculations, two mechanistic pathways are operating: (i) direct oxidative addition of the strained P-C bond to gold,(ii) backward-formation of the peri-halo naphthyl phosphine (by C-P oxidative addition to copper followed by C-X reductive elimination), copper to gold exchange and oxidative addition of the C-X bond to gold. Detailed analysis of the reaction profiles computed theoretically gives more insight into the influence of the nature of the solvent and halogen atom, and provides rationale for the very different behaviour of copper and gold in this chemistry.

Palladium-Catalyzed Three-Component Coupling of Ynamides

A palladium-catalyzed regioselective three-component coupling of ynamides was developed. The reaction proceeded smoothly to furnish the desired products when carried out at 70 °C in acetonitrile/water with potassium carbonate in the presence of 2.5 mol % Pd₂(dba)₃·CHCl₃ without a ligand. Various iodides and boronic acids were used in this reaction, and a carbon-carbon bond was formed with satisfactory regioselectivity from the ynamides.