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Niskanen J, Mahlberg R, van Strien N, Rautiainen S, Kivilahti E, Koivuranta K, Anghelescu-Hakala A. Upcycling of Agricultural Waste Stream to High-Molecular-Weight Bio-based Poly(ethylene 2,5-furanoate). ChemSusChem 2024; 17:e202301551. [PMID: 38252878 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202301551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Orange peel and sugar beet pulp contain large quantities of pectin, which can be turned via galactaric acid into furan dicarboxylic acid (FDCA) and its esters. In this work, we show the polymerisation of these FDCA esters into high-molecular-weight, 70-100 kg/mol, poly(ethylene 2,5-furanoate) (PEF). PEF is an emerging bio-based alternative for poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), widely used in for example packaging applications. Closing the loop, we also demonstrated and confirmed that PEF can be hydrolysed by enzymes, which are known to hydrolyse PET, back into FDCA for convenient recycling and recovery of monomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jukka Niskanen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Espoo, FI-02044, Finland
| | - Riitta Mahlberg
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Espoo, FI-02044, Finland
| | | | - Sari Rautiainen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Espoo, FI-02044, Finland
| | - Essi Kivilahti
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Espoo, FI-02044, Finland
| | - Kari Koivuranta
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Espoo, FI-02044, Finland
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Gastaldi E, Buendia F, Greuet P, Benbrahim Bouchou Z, Benihya A, Cesar G, Domenek S. Degradation and environmental assessment of compostable packaging mixed with biowaste in full-scale industrial composting conditions. Bioresour Technol 2024; 400:130670. [PMID: 38583679 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2024.130670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
The incorporation of representative commercial compostable materials into a full-scale open-air windrow composting process in an industrial site using household-separated biowaste was investigated. Two batches out of the same initial biowaste mixture were studied, one as control and the other containing initially 1.28 wt% of certified compostable plastics. No significant differences in the composting process were revealed. Compostable plastics exhibited a 98 wt% mass loss after 4 months, aligning with industrial composting times. The evolution of the morphology of the materials unveiled polymer specific degradation mechanisms. Both Safety requirements for organic farming were met. Ecotoxicity tests showed no adverse effects, agronomic fertilizing and amending quality was high, the materials compost even enhancing barley growth. The ecological impact assessment demonstrated an advantage for composting over incineration for seven of the eight indicators. In conclusion, this study shows the successful integration of compostable materials into industrial composting, upholding product safety and quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Gastaldi
- Fondation AgroParisTech, Chaire CoPack, 91120 Palaiseau, France; UMR IATE, Université Montpellier, INRAE, L'institut Agro Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Felipe Buendia
- Fondation AgroParisTech, Chaire CoPack, 91120 Palaiseau, France; Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, UMR SayFood, 91120, Palaiseau, France
| | - Paul Greuet
- Fondation AgroParisTech, Chaire CoPack, 91120 Palaiseau, France; UMR IATE, Université Montpellier, INRAE, L'institut Agro Montpellier, 34000 Montpellier, France
| | - Zineb Benbrahim Bouchou
- Fondation AgroParisTech, Chaire CoPack, 91120 Palaiseau, France; Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, UMR SayFood, 91120, Palaiseau, France
| | - Anir Benihya
- Fondation AgroParisTech, Chaire CoPack, 91120 Palaiseau, France; Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, UMR SayFood, 91120, Palaiseau, France
| | - Guy Cesar
- Serpbio, 64240-La Bastide Clairence, France
| | - Sandra Domenek
- Fondation AgroParisTech, Chaire CoPack, 91120 Palaiseau, France; Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, UMR SayFood, 91120, Palaiseau, France.
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Colwell J, Pratt S, Lant P, Laycock B. Hazardous state lifetimes of biodegradable plastics in natural environments. Sci Total Environ 2023; 894:165025. [PMID: 37348710 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Plastic pollution is a critical problem that has the potential for long-lasting impact. While all plastics eventually break down to at least some degree, they can remain in different transition states, such as microplastics and nanoplastics, for extended periods of time before reaching complete mineralisation to non-hazardous end products. Each of the transition states represents different types of hazards, so it is critical to understand the factors driving the lifetimes of plastics within these states. To do this, we propose a framework for assessing plastic lifetimes in natural environments based on the flow of material through potentially hazardous states: macroplastic and mesoplastic, microplastic, nanoplastic and soluble products. State changes within this framework are underpinned by three key processes: fragmentation, depolymerisation, and bioassimilation, with the pathways for generation of the different plastic states, and the lifetimes within these states, varying widely for individual materials in different environments due to their dependence on polymer material type, form and properties, and environmental factors. The critical factors driving these processes can therefore appear complex, but molecular weight, crystallinity, oxygen and water diffusivity, and inherent polymer chain reactivity (including to enzymes) are key to our understanding. By analysing currently available data that take factors such as these into consideration, we have generated information on the most likely states in which a range of plastics with different environmental degradation behaviour may exist over time in natural environments. Polyethylene (PE), for example, should be expected to fragment and accumulate in the environment as microplastic and nanoplastic. Interestingly, the state-profile for the biodegradable plastic polylactic acid (PLA) is similar, albeit over shorter timeframes. PLA also likely fragments, but then the relatively slow process of abiotic depolymerisation results in accumulation of microplastic and nanoplastic. By contrast, the state-profile for the biodegradable plastic polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) would be expected to be very different. The bulk material is less susceptible to embrittlement and fragmentation as a primary path to biodegradation, since the rapid enzyme catalysed depolymerisation of exposed surfaces proceeds in conjunction with bioassimilation.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Colwell
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Steven Pratt
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Paul Lant
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
| | - Bronwyn Laycock
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia.
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Gomes M, Rondelez Y, Leibler L. Lessons from Biomass Valorization for Improving Plastic-Recycling Enzymes. Annu Rev Chem Biomol Eng 2022; 13:457-479. [PMID: 35378043 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-092120-091054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic polymers such as plastics exhibit numerous advantageous properties that have made them essential components of our daily lives, with plastic production doubling every 15 years. The relatively low cost of petroleum-based polymers encourages their single use and overconsumption. Synthetic plastics are recalcitrant to biodegradation, and mismanagement of plastic waste leads to their accumulation in the ecosystem, resulting in a disastrous environmental footprint. Enzymes capable of depolymerizing plastics have been reported recently that may provide a starting point for eco-friendly plastic recycling routes. However, some questions remain about the mechanisms by which enzymes can digest insoluble solid substrates. We review the characterization and engineering of plastic-eating enzymes and provide some comparisons with the field of lignocellulosic biomass valorization. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Volume 13 is October 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Gomes
- Laboratoire Gulliver (UMR 7083), CNRS, ESPCI Paris, PSL Research University, Paris, France; ;
| | - Yannick Rondelez
- Laboratoire Gulliver (UMR 7083), CNRS, ESPCI Paris, PSL Research University, Paris, France; ;
| | - Ludwik Leibler
- Laboratoire Gulliver (UMR 7083), CNRS, ESPCI Paris, PSL Research University, Paris, France; ;
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Wei XF, Capezza AJ, Cui Y, Li L, Hakonen A, Liu B, Hedenqvist MS. Millions of microplastics released from a biodegradable polymer during biodegradation/enzymatic hydrolysis. Water Res 2022; 211:118068. [PMID: 35066257 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this article, we show that enzymatic hydrolysis of a biodegradable polyester (poly(ε-caprolactone)) by Amano Lipase PS in an aqueous (buffer) environment yielded rapidly an excessive number of microplastic particles; merely 0.1 g of poly(ε-caprolactone) film was demonstrated to yield millions of particles. There were also indications of non-enzymatic hydrolysis at the same conditions, but this did not yield any particles within the time frame of the experiment (up to 6 days). Microplastic particles formed had irregular shapes with an average size of around 10 µm, with only a few reaching 60 µm. The formation of microplastic particles resulted from the uneven hydrolysis/erosion rate across the polymer film surface, which led to a rough and undulating surface with ridge, branch, and rod-shaped micro-protruding structures. The consequent detachment and fragmentation of these micro-sized protruding structures resulted in the release of microplastics to the surroundings. Together with microplastics, hydrolysis products such as acidic monomers and oligomers were also released during the enzymatic hydrolysis process, causing a pH decrease in the surrounding liquid. The results suggest that the risk of microplastic pollution from biodegradable plastics is notable despite their biodegradation. Special attention needs to be paid when using and disposing of biodegradable plastics, considering the enormous impact of the paradigm shift towards more biodegradable products on the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Feng Wei
- Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Antonio J Capezza
- Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yuxiao Cui
- Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lengwan Li
- Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Aron Hakonen
- Sensor Visions AB, SE, 455 22 Hisings Backa, Sweden
| | - Baicang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Science and Engineering (Ministry of Education), College of Architecture and Environment, Institute of New Energy and Low-Carbon Technology, Institute for Disaster Management and Reconstruction, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan 610207, China
| | - Mikael S Hedenqvist
- Fibre and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden.
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