Deciphering the evolution of supramolecular nanofibers in solution and solid-state: a combined microscopic and spectroscopic approach

Endoplasmic Reticulum-Targeting Delayed Fluorescent Probe for Dual-mode Nitroreductase Sensing

Organic thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) materials, known for their long-lived emission properties, are highly sought after for background-free imaging of selective analytes in time-resolved modes. However, their practical application faces significant challenges, including the air sensitivity of triplet states, lack of organelle specificity, and the absence of precise analyte recognition centres. These limitations hinder their effectiveness in detecting key cancer biomarkers such as nitroreductase (NTR). Herein, we present the development of donor (triphenylamine)-acceptor (quinoxaline)-based probes, TPQS and TPNS, which are functionalized with a sulphonamide unit to offer endoplasmic reticulum specificity. TPQS exhibits delayed fluorescence, attributed to a minimal singlet-triplet energy gap, as confirmed by time-resolved fluorescence measurements. Additionally, a nonfluorescent probe, TPNS, is synthesized by introducing a nitro group into the sulphonamide unit of the TPQS backbone, serving as a recognition centre for NTR. Upon reacting with NTR, TPNS displays a "turn-on" luminescence and delayed fluorescence, enabling dual-mode detection of NTR through both confocal fluorescence imaging and time-resolved fluorescence imaging (TRFI) in cancer cells. These findings underscore the potential of delayed fluorescent emitters for the sensitive and specific detection of cancer biomarkers in complex biological environments.

An efficient circularly polarized luminescence probe base on anthryl-modified Eu(III)-helicates for the detection and imaging singlet oxygen in living cells

Singlet oxygen (1O2) is the main active ingredient in photodynamic therapy (PDT). However, an excess 1O2 can cause unnecessary toxicity. Therefore, it is of great importance to develop reliable and sensitive methods or probes for detecting 1O2 in biological systems. In this study, a pair of anthryl-modified Eu(III) binaphthol-bis-β-diketones helicates, (NEt4)2[Eu2(LR/S)4] are designed, synthesized and characterized. Initially, the complexes display faint luminescence. Upon reacting with 1O2 to create endoperoxides of the anthracene framework, the long-lived luminescence of the Eu(III) complexes is activated. Notably, the high luminescence dissymmetry factor, glum of the 5D0 → 7F1 transition (595 nm) shows an obvious increase from -1.21 to -1.29 before and after oxidation. The complex exhibits a highly selective luminescent response to the 1O2 generated by 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) loaded 4 T1 cells during photodynamic processes. To the best of we knowledge, this is the first example of 1O2 detection based on circularly polarized luminescence (CPL) probe. The design of the lanthanide CPL probe provides a practical way for the sensitive detection of 1O2 in the future.

Film thickness dependence of nanoscale arrangement of a chiral electron donor in its blends with an achiral electron acceptor

The nanoscale chiral arrangement in a bicomponent organic material system comprising donor and acceptor small molecules is shown to depend on the thickness of a film that is responsive to chiral light in an optoelectronic device. In this bulk heterojunction, a previously unreported chiral bis(diketopyrrolopyrrole) derivative was combined with an achiral non-fullerene acceptor. The optical activity of the chiral compound is dramatically different in the pure material and the composite, showing how the electron acceptor influences the donor's arrangement compared with the pure molecule. Mueller matrix polarimetric imaging shows the authenticity of this effect and the homogeneity of short range chiral orientations between the molecules, as well as more heterogeneous short and longer range arrangements in the films observed in linear dichroic and birefringent effects. The two-dimensional circular dichroism (CD) maps and spectra show the uniformity of the short range supramolecular interactions both in spun-cast films on quartz and blade-coated films on photovoltaic device substrates, where evidence for the chiral arrangement is uniquely provided by the synchrotron CD measurements. The external quantum efficiency of the devices depends upon the handedness of the light used to excite them and the film thickness, that influences the supramolecular arrangement and organization in the film, and determines the selectivity for left or right circularly polarised light. The difference in external quantum efficiency of the photovoltaic devices between the two handedness' of light correlates with the apparent differential absorbance (g-factor) of the films.

Hydrogen-Bond-Regulated Mechanochemical Synthesis of Covalent Organic Frameworks: Cocrystal Precursor Strategy for Confined Assembly

Two-dimensional imine covalent organic frameworks (2D imine-COFs) are crystalline porous materials with broad application prospects. Despite the efforts into their design and synthesis, the mechanisms of their formation are still not fully understood. Herein, a one-pot two-step mechanochemical cocrystal precursor synthetic strategy is developed for efficient construction of 2D imine-COFs. The mechanistic investigation demonstrated that the cocrystal precursors of 4,4',4''-(1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl)trianiline (TAPT) and p-toluenesulphonic acid (PTSA) sufficiently regulate the crystalline structure of COF. Evidenced by characterizations and theoretical studies, a helical hydrogen-bond network was constructed by the N-H⋅⋅⋅O supramolecular synthons between amino and sulfonic groups in TAPT-PTSA, demonstrating the role of cocrystals in promoting the organized stacking of interlayer π-π interactions, layer arrangement, and interlayer spacing, thus facilitating the orderly assembly of COFs. Moreover, the protonation degree of TAPT amines, which tuned nucleophilic directionality, enabled the sequential progression of intra- and interlayer imine condensation reactions, inhibiting the formation of amorphous polymers. The transformation from cocrystal precursors to COFs was achieved through comprehensive control of hydrogen bond and covalent bond sites. This work significantly advances the concept of hydrogen-bond-regulated COF assembly and its mechanochemical method in the design and synthesis of 2D imine-COFs, further elucidating the mechanistic aspects of their mechanochemical synthesis.

An efficient all-visible light-activated photoswitch based on diarylethenes and CdS quantum dots

All-visible light-activated diarylethene (DAE) photoswitches are highly attractive for applications in smart photoresponsive materials. The photocyclization of DAE via the low-lying excited triplet state through triplet energy transfer (TET) from a sensitizer has been proven to be an effective approach for the realization of this scheme. However, the TET process is sensitive to oxygen and typically requires more than one sensitizer per photoswitch to facilitate sensitized photocyclization. Herein, we present a bi-component system comprising carboxylic acid-functionalized DAEs and CdS quantum dots (QDs) to achieve all-visible light-activated photoswitching. Due to the large surface area-to-volume ratio of CdS QDs and surface anchored DAEs, one CdS QD can activate at least 18 DAE molecules in the solution without oxygen exclusion. The efficiency of photocyclization of DAEs under visible light irradiation through energy transfer from CdS QDs is nearly comparable to that of direct UV light irradiation. Moreover, our strategy is adaptable for solid-state applications in the presence of air, enabling reversible writing and erasing of color and patterns by adjusting irradiation wavelengths in the visible region.

Mesoscale Acid-Base Complexes Display Size-Associated Photophysical Property and Photochemical Activity

The properties of single molecules and molecular aggregates can differ dramatically, leading to a long-standing interest in mesoscale aggregation processes. Herein, a series of acid-base molecular complexes is developed by using a tetraphenylethylene-backboned fluorophore, and investigated the photophysical properties and photochemical activities at different aggregation length scales. This fluorophore, with two basic diethylamine groups and two acidic tetrazole groups, exhibits sparse solubility due to multivalent interactions that cause infinite aggregation. The addition of a third acid leads to the formation of fluorophore/acid complexes with good dispersibility and colloidal stability. This assembly process can be controlled by the use of different acids and their stoichiometry, resulting in aggregates ranging in size from a few to hundreds of nanometers. A crystalline structure is obtained to illustrate the complex properties of the acid-base network. Unlike the single molecule, these complexes show a trend of size-related properties for photoluminescence efficiency and photochemical activity. As the amount of acid added increases, the size of the complexes decreases, the aggregation effect of the complexes on fluorescence emission increases, and the rates of the oxidative photocyclization and photodecomposition slow down. This work may help to understand size-controlled molecular materials at the mesoscale for functional design.

Evidence of carrier diffusion between emission states in CdSe/ZnS core-shell quantum dots: a comprehensive investigation combining fluorescence lifetime correlation spectroscopy (FLCS) and single dot photoluminescence studies

Investigation of carrier dynamics in CdSe/ZnS core-shell quantum dots (QDs) is performed using fluorescence-lifetime-correlation-spectroscopy (FLCS) and single-dot PL blinking studies. The origin of an emitted photon from a QD in an FLCS study is assigned to either an exciton state or trap state based on its excited state lifetime (τfl). Subsequently, two intrastate autocorrelation functions (ACFs) representing the exciton and trap states and one cross-correlation function (CCF) coupling these two states are constructed. Interestingly, the timescales of carrier diffusion (τR) show striking similarities across all three correlation functions, which further correlate with τR of the conventional FCS. However, ACFs notably deviate from the CCF in their μs progression patterns, with the latter showing growth, whereas the former ones display decay. This implies inter-state carrier diffusions leading to the QD blinking. Further study of single particle PL blinking on a surface-immobilized QD indicates shallow trap states near the band edge cause the blinking at low excitation power, while trion recombination becomes an additional contributing factor at higher pump power. Overall, the results highlight not only an excellent correlation between these two techniques but also the potential of our approach for achieving an accurate and comprehensive understanding of carrier dynamics in CdSe/ZnS QDs.

Unveiling autophagy and aging through time-resolved imaging of lysosomal polarity with a delayed fluorescent emitter

Detecting the lysosomal microenvironmental changes like viscosity, pH, and polarity during their dynamic interorganelle interactions remains an intriguing area that facilitates the elucidation of cellular homeostasis. The subtle variation of physiological conditions can be assessed by deciphering the lysosomal microenvironments during lysosome-organelle interactions, closely related to autophagic pathways leading to various cellular disorders. Herein, we shed light on the dynamic lysosomal polarity in live cells and a multicellular model organism, Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), through time-resolved imaging employing a thermally activated delayed fluorescent probe, DC-Lyso. The highly photostable and cytocompatible DC-Lyso rapidly labels the lysosomes (within 1 min of incubation) and exhibits red luminescence and polarity-sensitive long lifetime under the cellular environment. The distinct variation in the fluorescence lifetime of DC-Lyso suggests an increase in local polarity during the lysosomal dynamics and interorganelle interactions, including lipophagy and mitophagy. The lifetime imaging analysis reveals increasing lysosomal polarity as an indicator for probing the successive development of C. elegans during aging. The in vivo microsecond timescale imaging of various cancerous cell lines and C. elegans, as presented here, therefore, expands the scope of delayed fluorescent emitters for unveiling complex biological processes.

Unveiling the Long-Lived Emission of Copper Nanoclusters Embedded in a Protein Scaffold

Protein-conjugated coinage metal nanoclusters have become promising materials for optoelectronics and biomedical applications. However, the origin of the photoluminescence, especially the long-lived excited state emission in these metal nanoclusters, is still elusive. Here, we unveiled the underlying mechanism of long-lived emission in albumin protein-conjugated copper nanoclusters (Cu NCs) using steady state and time-resolved spectroscopic techniques. Our findings reveal room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) in protein-conjugated Cu NCs. Time-resolved area-normalized spectra distinguished short- and long-lived components, where the former arises from the singlet state and the latter from the triplet state, thus resulting in RTP. The similarity of the emission spectra at room (298 K) and cryogenic (77 K) temperature ascertains the RTP phenomenon by harvesting the higher-lying triplet states. Time-gated bioimaging of A549 cells using the long-lived emission not only supports RTP emission in the cellular environment but also provides exciting avenues in long-term bioimaging using bovine serum albumin-conjugated Cu NCs.

Surfactant-induced disaggregation of a quinoxaline AIEgen scaffold: aggregation aptitude in the solid and solution states

We have designed five propellor-shaped molecules based on the quinoxaline scaffold with a functional group variation. They exhibit aggregation-induced emission, and the responses of these congeners regarding good solvents and poor solvents are investigated both spectroscopically and microscopically. Solid- as well as solution-state parallel analysis of the aggregation facet is laid out. Notably, L2 interacts specifically with a cationic surfactant, unlike other congeners where the mechanism proceeds via disaggregation. Real sample analysis was carried out on freshwater samples as well as waste effluent samples from domestic households and industries, thus projecting the analytical and environmental significance.

Controllable self-assembly of thiophene-based π-conjugated molecule and further construction of pillar[5]arene-based host-guest white-light emission system

Photoluminescence materials have been widely applied in biological imaging and sensing, anti-counterfeiting, light-emitting diodes, logic gates et al. The fabrication of luminescent materials with adjustable emission color by self-assembly of π-conjugated molecules has attracted particular attention. In this study, we designed and synthesized a thiophene-based α-cyanostyrene-derivative (TPPA), then investigate its self-assembly morphology and fluorescence emission under different organic solvents, different proportions of H2O/THF (DMSO) mixture and different pH conditions by UV, FL and SEM images. It was found that TPPA formed nanoparticles by self-assembly in organic solvent (THF or DMSO), accompanied by strong fluorescence emission. However, with the increase of water ratio, the fluorescence intensity decreased accompany with red shift, and the self-assembly morphology changed from nanoparticles to fibers. More interestingly, when pillar[5]arene (P5) was added to form host-guest complex with TPPA, white light emission could be successfully constructed when the ratio of TPPA to P5 was 1:20 and THF to water was 19:1.

Synthesis, optical and electrochemical properties of (D–π)2-type and (D–π)2Ph-type fluorescent dyes

The (D–π)₂-type fluorescent dye OTT-2 with two (diphenylamino)carbazole-thiophene units as D (electron-donating group)–π (π-conjugated bridge) moiety and the (D–π)₂Ph-type fluorescent dye OTK-2 with the two D–π moieties connected through a phenyl ring were derived by oxidative homocoupling of a stannyl D–π unit and Stille coupling of a stannyl D–π unit with 1,3-diiodobenzene, respectively. Their optical and electrochemical properties were investigated by photoabsorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry (CV) and molecular orbital (MO) calculations. In toluene the photoabsorption and fluorescence maximum wavelengths (λ_max,abs and λ_max,fl) of OTT-2 appear in a longer wavelength region than those of OTK-2. The fluorescence quantum yield (Φ_fl) of OTT-2 is 0.41, which is higher than that (Φ_fl = 0.36) of OTK-2. In the solid state OTT-2 shows relatively intense fluorescence properties (Φ_fl-solid = 0.24 nm), compared with OTK-2 (Φ_fl-solid = 0.15 nm). CV results demonstrated that OTT-2 and OTK-2 exhibit a reversible oxidation wave. Based on photoabsorption, fluorescence spectroscopy and CV for the two dyes, it was found that the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy level of OTT-2 is lower than that of OTK-2, but OTT-2 and OTK-2 have comparable highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) energy levels. Consequently, this work reveals that compared to the (D–π)₂Ph-type structure, the (D–π)₂-type structure exhibits not only a bathochromic shift of the photoabsorption band, but also intense fluorescence emission both in solution and the solid state.

Iterative Optimization and Structure-Activity Relationship Studies of Oseltamivir Amino Derivatives as Potent and Selective Neuraminidase Inhibitors via Targeting 150-Cavity

With our continuous endeavors in seeking neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors, we reported herein three series of novel oseltamivir amino derivatives with the goal of exploring the druggable chemical space inside the 150-cavity of influenza virus NAs. Among them, around half of the compounds in series C were demonstrated to be better inhibitors against both wild-type and oseltamivir-resistant group-1 NAs than oseltamivir carboxylate (OSC). Notably, compounds 12d, 12e, 15e, and 15i showed more potent or equipotent antiviral activity against H1N1, H5N1, and H5N8 viruses compared to OSC in cellular assays. Furthermore, compounds 12e and 15e exhibited high metabolic stability in human liver microsomes (HLMs) and low inhibitory effect on main cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, as well as low acute/subacute toxicity and certain antiviral efficacy in vivo. Also, pharmacokinetic (PK) and molecular docking studies were performed. Overall, 12e and 15e possess great potential to serve as anti-influenza candidates and are worthy of further investigation.

Molecular to Supramolecular Self-Assembled Luminogens for Tracking the Intracellular Organelle Dynamics

Deciphering the dynamics of intracellular organelles has gained immense attention due to their subtle control over diverse, complex biological processes such as cellular metabolism, energy homeostasis, and autophagy. In this context, molecular materials, including small-organic fluorescent probes and their supramolecular self-assembled nano-/microarchitectures, have been employed to explore the diverse intracellular biological events. However, only a handful of fluorescent probes and self-assembled emissive structures have been successfully used to track different organelle's movements, circumventing the issues related to water solubility and long-term photostability. Thus, the water-soluble molecular fluorescent probes and the water-dispersible supramolecular self-assemblies have emerged as promising candidates to explore the trafficking of the organelles under diverse physiological conditions. In this review, we have delineated the recent progress of fluorescent probes and their supramolecular self-assemblies for the elucidation of the dynamics of diverse cellular organelles with a special emphasis on lysosomes, lipid droplets, and mitochondria. Recent advancement in fluorescence lifetime and super-resolution microscopy imaging has also been discussed to investigate the dynamics of organelles. In addition, the fabrication of the next-generation molecular to supramolecular self-assembled luminogens for probing the variation of microenvironments during the trafficking process has been outlined.

Ratiometric pH Sensing, Photophysics, and Cell Imaging of Nonaromatic Light-Emitting Polymers

Here, four nontraditional fluorescent polymers (NTFPs) of varying N,N-dimethyl-2-propenamide (DMPA) and butyl prop-2-enoate (BPE) mole ratios, i.e., 2:1 (NTFP1), 4:1 (NTFP2), 8:1 (NTFP3), and 16:1 (NTFP4), are prepared via random polymerization in water. The maximum fluorescence enhancement of NTFP3 makes it suitable for ratiometric pH sensing, Cu(II) sensing, and pH-dependent cell imaging of Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. The oxygen donor functionalities of NTFP3 involved in binding and sensing with Cu(II) ions are studied by absorption, emission, electron paramagnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and O1s/Cu2p X-ray photoelectron spectroscopies (XPS). The spectral responses of the ratiometric pH sensor within 1.5-11.5 confirm 22 and 44 nm red shifts in absorption and ratiometric emission, respectively. The striking color changes from blue (436 nm) to green (480 nm) via an increase in pH are thought to be the stabilization of the charged canonical form of tertiary amide, i.e., -C(O^-)═N⁺(CH₃)₂, realized from the changes in the absorption/fluorescence spectra and XPS/FTIR analyses. The through-space n-π* interactions in the NTFP3 aggregate, N-branching-associated rigidity, and nonconventional intramolecular hydrogen bondings of adjacent NTFP3 moieties in the NTFP3 aggregate contribute to aggregation-enhanced emissions (AEEs). Here, structures of NTFP3, NTFP3 aggregate, and Cu(II)-NTFP3; absorption; n-π* interactions; hydrogen bondings; AEEs; and binding with Cu(II) are ascertained by density functional theory, time-dependent density functional theory, and reduced density gradient calculations. The excellent limits of detection and Stern-Volmer constants of NTFP3 are 2.24 nM/0.14234 ppb and 4.26 × 10³ M^-1 at pH = 6.5 and 0.95 nM/0.06037 ppb and 4.90 × 10³ M^-1 at pH = 8.0, respectively. Additionally, the Stokes shift and binding energy of NTFP3 are 13,636 cm^-1/1.69 eV and -4.64 eV, respectively. The pH-dependent MDCK cell imaging ability of noncytotoxic NTFP3 is supported via fluorescence imaging and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay.

How to Characterize Amorphous Shapes: The Tale of a Reverse Micelle

Aerosol-OT reverse micelles represent a chemical construct where surfactant molecules self-assemble to stabilize water nanodroplets 1-10 nm in diameter. Although commonly assumed to adopt a spherical shape, all-atom molecular dynamics simulations and some experimental studies predict a nonspherical shape. If these aggregates are not spherical, then what shape do they take? Because the tools needed to evaluate the shape of something that lacks regular structure, order, or symmetry are not well developed, we present a set of three intuitive metrics─coordinate-pair eccentricity, convexity, and the curvature distribution─that estimate the shape of an amorphous object, and we demonstrate their use on a simulated aerosol-OT reverse micelle. These metrics are all well-established methods and principles in mathematics, and each provides unique information about the shape. Together, these metrics provide intuitive descriptions of amorphous shapes, facilitate ways to quantify those shapes, and follow their changes over time.

Three in One: Stimuli-Responsive Fluorescence, Solid-State Emission, and Dual-Organelle Imaging Using a Pyrene-Benzophenone Derivative

Small organic luminogens, owing to their contrasting stimuli-responsive fluorescence in solution along with strong emission in aggregated and solidstates, have been employed in optoelectronic devices, sensors, and bioimaging. Pyrene derivatives usually exhibit strong fluorescence and concentration-dependent excimer/aggregate emission in solution. However, the impacts of microenvironments on the monomer and aggregate emission bands and their relative intensities in solution, solid, and supramolecular aggregates are intriguing. The present study delineates a trade-off between the monomer and aggregate emissions of a pyrene-benzophenone derivative (ABzPy) in solution, in the solid-state, and in nanoaggregates through a combined spectroscopic and microscopic approach. The impact of external stimuli (viscosity, pH) on the aggregate emission was demonstrated using steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopy, including fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and fluorescence anisotropy decay analysis. The aggregate formation was noticed at a higher concentration (>10 μM) in solution, at 77 K (5 μM), and in the solid-state due to the π-π stacking interactions (3.6 Å) between two ABzPy molecules. In contrast, no aggregate formation was observed in the viscous medium as well as in a micellar environment even at a higher concentration of ABzPy (50 μM). The crystal structure analysis further shed light on the intermolecular hydrogen-bonding-assisted solid-state emission, which was found to be highly sensitive toward external stimuli like pH and mechanical forces. The broad emission band comprising both monomer and aggregate in the aqueous dispersion of nanoaggregates was used for the specific cellular imaging of lysosomes and lipid droplets, respectively.

From fluorogens to fluorophores by elucidation and suppression of ultrafast excited state processes of a Schiff base

Strategies have been explored for developing strongly fluorescent species out of a weakly fluorescent Schiff base, 2-(((pyridin-2-ylmethyl)imino)methyl)phenol (salampy). The locally excited enolic state of salampy undergoes an intramolecular proton transfer with a time constant of ca. 200 fs. The emissive cis keto state thus formed decays completely within 50 ps. Its fast decay and miniscule fluorescence quantum yield are attributed to efficient non-radiative channels associated with conformational relaxation. The anionic form, salampy^-, has a significantly longer fluorescence lifetime of 800 ps. Its emissive state evolves in tens of picoseconds, from the locally excited state, by solvent and conformational relaxation. Both the neutral and anionic forms have a fluorescence lifetime of about 6 ns at 77 K, a temperature at which all activated nonradiative channels are blocked. This lifetime is similar to that obtained at room temperature, upon rigidification of the anion by complexation with Zn²⁺. Two such complexes have been studied. The first is binuclear, with acetate bridge between the two Zn²⁺ ions. The second, with ClO₄^- as the counterion, is mononuclear with two salampy ligands ligating the metal ion. Unlike a previous report on a different Schiff base, in which the ligands are π-stacked in its dimeric Zn²⁺ complex, no additional nonradiative deactivation pathway opens up in the Zn complexes of salampy, which are devoid of such stacking. The complex of salampy with Al³⁺ has an even longer fluorescence lifetime of 9 ns, indicating a greater degree of rigidification and consequent suppression of nonradiative processes.