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Effenberg C, Gaitzsch J. Stretched or wrinkled? Looking into the polymer conformation within polymersome membranes. SOFT MATTER 2024; 20:4127-4135. [PMID: 38726767 DOI: 10.1039/d4sm00239c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Self-assembly of amphiphilic block-copolymers into polymersomes is a well-established concept. In this membrane, the hydrophilic part is considered to be loosely assembled towards the solvent, and the hydrophobic part on the inside of the membrane is considered to be more densely packed. Within the membrane, this hydrophobic part could now have a stretched conformation or be a random coil, depending on the available space and also on the chemical nature of the polymer. We now analysed the literature for works on polymersomes that determined the membrane thickness via cryo-TEM and analysed the hydrophobic part of their polymers for their conformation. Over all available block-copolymers, a variety of trends became obvious: the longer a hydrophobic block, the more coiled the conformation and the bulkier the side chains, the more stretched the polymer became. Polymers with less conformational freedom like semi-crystalline ones were present in a more stretched conformation. Both trends could be exemplified on various occasions in this cross-literature meta-study. This overview hence provides additional insight into the physical chemistry of block-copolymer membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jens Gaitzsch
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e. V., Germany.
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2
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Maffeis V, Heuberger L, Nikoletić A, Schoenenberger C, Palivan CG. Synthetic Cells Revisited: Artificial Cells Construction Using Polymeric Building Blocks. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2305837. [PMID: 37984885 PMCID: PMC10885666 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202305837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The exponential growth of research on artificial cells and organelles underscores their potential as tools to advance the understanding of fundamental biological processes. The bottom-up construction from a variety of building blocks at the micro- and nanoscale, in combination with biomolecules is key to developing artificial cells. In this review, artificial cells are focused upon based on compartments where polymers are the main constituent of the assembly. Polymers are of particular interest due to their incredible chemical variety and the advantage of tuning the properties and functionality of their assemblies. First, the architectures of micro- and nanoscale polymer assemblies are introduced and then their usage as building blocks is elaborated upon. Different membrane-bound and membrane-less compartments and supramolecular structures and how they combine into advanced synthetic cells are presented. Then, the functional aspects are explored, addressing how artificial organelles in giant compartments mimic cellular processes. Finally, how artificial cells communicate with their surrounding and each other such as to adapt to an ever-changing environment and achieve collective behavior as a steppingstone toward artificial tissues, is taken a look at. Engineering artificial cells with highly controllable and programmable features open new avenues for the development of sophisticated multifunctional systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Maffeis
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of BaselMattenstrasse 22BaselCH‐4002Switzerland
- NCCR‐Molecular Systems EngineeringBPR 1095, Mattenstrasse 24aBaselCH‐4058Switzerland
| | - Lukas Heuberger
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of BaselMattenstrasse 22BaselCH‐4002Switzerland
| | - Anamarija Nikoletić
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of BaselMattenstrasse 22BaselCH‐4002Switzerland
- Swiss Nanoscience InstituteUniversity of BaselKlingelbergstrasse 82BaselCH‐4056Switzerland
| | | | - Cornelia G. Palivan
- Department of ChemistryUniversity of BaselMattenstrasse 22BaselCH‐4002Switzerland
- NCCR‐Molecular Systems EngineeringBPR 1095, Mattenstrasse 24aBaselCH‐4058Switzerland
- Swiss Nanoscience InstituteUniversity of BaselKlingelbergstrasse 82BaselCH‐4056Switzerland
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3
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Zhang K, Zhou Y, Moreno S, Schwarz S, Boye S, Voit B, Appelhans D. Reversible crowdedness of pH-responsive and host-guest active polymersomes: Mimicking µm-sized cell structures. J Colloid Interface Sci 2024; 654:1469-1482. [PMID: 37858368 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
The structure-function characteristics of isolated artificial organelles (AOs) in protocells are mainly known, but there are few reports on clustered or aggregated AOs. To imitate µm-sized complex and heterogeneous cell structures, approaches are needed that enable reversible changes in the aggregation state of colloidal structures in response to chemical, biological, and external stimuli. To construct adaptive organelle-like or cell-like reorganization characteristics, we present an advanced crosslinking strategy to fabricate clustered polymersomes as a platform based on host-guest interactions between azobenzene-containing polymersomes (Azo-Psomes) and a β-cyclodextrin-modified polymer (β-CD polymer) as a crosslinker. First, the reversible (dis)assembly of clustered Azo-Psomes is carried out by the alternating input of crosslinker and adamantane-PEG3000 as a decrosslinker. Moreover, cluster size dependence is demonstrated by environmental pH. These offer the controlled fabrication of various homogeneous and heterogeneous Azo-Psomes structures, including the size regulation and visualization of clustered AOs through a fluorescent enzymatic cascade reaction. Finally, a temperature-sensitive crosslinking agent with β-CD units can promote the coaggregation of Azo-Psomes mediated by temperature changes. Overall, these (co-)clustered Azo-Psomes and their successful transformation in AOs may provide new features for modelling biological systems for eukaryotic cells and systems biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kehu Zhang
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany; Chair of Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden 01062, Germany
| | - Yang Zhou
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany; Chair of Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden 01062, Germany
| | - Silvia Moreno
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany.
| | - Simona Schwarz
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Susanne Boye
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany; Chair of Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden 01062, Germany
| | - Dietmar Appelhans
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, Dresden 01069, Germany.
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Perin GB, Moreno S, Zhou Y, Günther M, Boye S, Voit B, Felisberti MI, Appelhans D. Construction of Membraneless and Multicompartmentalized Coacervate Protocells Controlling a Cell Metabolism-like Cascade Reaction. Biomacromolecules 2023; 24:5807-5822. [PMID: 37984848 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been growing attention to designing synthetic protocells, capable of mimicking micrometric and multicompartmental structures and highly complex physicochemical and biological processes with spatiotemporal control. Controlling metabolism-like cascade reactions in coacervate protocells is still challenging since signal transduction has to be involved in sequential and parallelized actions mediated by a pH change. Herein, we report the hierarchical construction of membraneless and multicompartmentalized protocells composed of (i) a cytosol-like scaffold based on complex coacervate droplets stable under flow conditions, (ii) enzyme-active artificial organelles and a substrate nanoreservoir capable of triggering a cascade reaction between them in response to a pH increase, and (iii) a signal transduction component based on the urease enzyme capable of the conversion of an exogenous biological fuel (urea) into an endogenous signal (ammonia and pH increase). Overall, this strategy allows a synergistic communication between their components within the membraneless and multicompartment protocells and, thus, metabolism-like enzymatic cascade reactions. This signal communication is transmitted through a scaffold protocell from an "inactive state" (nonfluorescent protocell) to an "active state" (fluorescent protocell capable of consuming stored metabolites).
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni B Perin
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Hohe Straße 6, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Silvia Moreno
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Hohe Straße 6, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Yang Zhou
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Hohe Straße 6, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Markus Günther
- Institute of Botany, Faculty of Biology, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Susanne Boye
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Hohe Straße 6, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Hohe Straße 6, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Maria I Felisberti
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Dietmar Appelhans
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden, Hohe Straße 6, D-01069 Dresden, Germany
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Xu X, Moreno S, Gentzel M, Zhang K, Wang D, Voit B, Appelhans D. Biomimetic Protocells Featuring Macrophage-Like Capture and Digestion of Protein Pathogens. SMALL METHODS 2023; 7:e2300257. [PMID: 37599260 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202300257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Modern medical research develops interest in sophisticated artificial nano- and microdevices for future treatment of human diseases related to biological dysfunctions. This covers the design of protocells capable of mimicking the structure and functionality of eukaryotic cells. The authors use artificial organelles based on trypsin-loaded pH-sensitive polymeric vesicles to provide macrophage-like digestive functions under physiological conditions. Herein, an artificial cell is established where digestive artificial organelles (nanosize) are integrated into a protocell (microsize). With this method, mimicking crossing of different biological barriers, capture of model protein pathogens, and compartmentalized digestive function are possible. This allows the integration of different components (e.g., dextran as stabilizing block) and the diffusion of pathogens in simulated cytosolic environment under physiological conditions. An integrated characterization approach is carried out, with identifying electrospray ionization mass spectrometry as an excellent detection method for the degradation of a small peptide such as β-amyloid. The degradation of model enzymes is measured by enzyme activity assays. This work is an important contribution to effective biomimicry with the design of cell-like functions having potential for therapeutic action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Xu
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., D-01069, Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Silvia Moreno
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., D-01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Marc Gentzel
- Center for Molecular and Cellular Bioengineering (CMCB), Core Facility Mass Spectrometry & Proteomics, Technische Universität Dresden, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Kehu Zhang
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., D-01069, Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Dishi Wang
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., D-01069, Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., D-01069, Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Dietmar Appelhans
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., D-01069, Dresden, Germany
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Xu X, Moreno S, Boye S, Wang P, Voit B, Appelhans D. Artificial Organelles with Digesting Characteristics: Imitating Simplified Lysosome- and Macrophage-Like Functions by Trypsin-Loaded Polymersomes. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023:e2207214. [PMID: 37076948 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202207214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Defects in cellular protein/enzyme encoding or even in organelles are responsible for many diseases. For instance, dysfunctional lysosome or macrophage activity results in the unwanted accumulation of biomolecules and pathogens implicated in autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and metabolic disorders. Enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) is a medical treatment that replaces an enzyme that is deficient or absent in the body but suffers from short lifetime of the enzymes. Here, this work proposes the fabrication of two different pH-responsive and crosslinked trypsin-loaded polymersomes as protecting enzyme carriers mimicking artificial organelles (AOs). They allow the enzymatic degradation of biomolecules to mimic simplified lysosomal function at acidic pH and macrophage functions at physiological pH. For optimal working of digesting AOs in different environments, pH and salt composition are considered the key parameters, since they define the permeability of the membrane of the polymersomes and the access of model pathogens to the loaded trypsin. Thus, this work demonstrates environmentally controlled biomolecule digestion by trypsin-loaded polymersomes also under simulated physiological fluids, allowing a prolonged therapeutic window due to protection of the enzyme in the AOs. This enables the application of AOs in the fields of biomimetic therapeutics, specifically in ERT for dysfunctional lysosomal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Xu
- Deaprtment Bioactive and Responsive Polymers, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, D-01069, Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Silvia Moreno
- Deaprtment Bioactive and Responsive Polymers, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, D-01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Susanne Boye
- Center Macromolecular Structure Analysis, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, D-01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Peng Wang
- Deaprtment Bioactive and Responsive Polymers, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, D-01069, Dresden, Germany
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Deaprtment Bioactive and Responsive Polymers, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, D-01069, Dresden, Germany
- Organic Chemistry of Polymers, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Dietmar Appelhans
- Deaprtment Bioactive and Responsive Polymers, Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V., Hohe Straße 6, D-01069, Dresden, Germany
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Chen M, Liu G, Zhang M, Li Y, Hong X, Yang H. Programmatically Dynamic Microcompartmentation in Coacervate-in-Pickering Emulsion Protocell. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2206437. [PMID: 36564366 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202206437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The desire for exploration of cellular functional mechanisms has substantially increased the rapid development of artificial cells. However, the construction of synthetic cells with high organizational complexity remains challenging due to the lack of facile approaches ensuring dynamic multi-compartments of cytoplasm and stability of membranes in protocells. Herein, a stable coacervate-in-Pickering emulsion protocell model comprising a membraneless coacervate phase formed by poly-l-lysine (PLys) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) encapsulated in Pickering emulsion is put forward only through simple one-step emulsification. The dynamic distribution of intracellular components (coacervates in this protocell model) can be manipulated by changes in temperature or pH. This coacervate-in-Pickering emulsion protocell system exhibits repeatable cycle stability in response to external stimuli (at least 24 cycles for temperature and 3 cycles for pH). By encapsulating antagonistic enzymes into coacervates, glucose oxidase (GOx) and urease as an example, the control of local enzyme concentration is achieved by introducing glucose and urea to adjust the pH value in Pickering emulsion droplets. This hybrid protocell model with programmatically dynamic microcompartmentation and sufficient stability is expected to be further studied and applied in cellular biology, facilitating the development of lifelike systems with potential in practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengqing Chen
- College of Chemistry and Molecule Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Guoliang Liu
- College of Chemistry and Molecule Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Ming Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Yanyan Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
| | - Xinlin Hong
- College of Chemistry and Molecule Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Hengquan Yang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, 030006, China
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Liu Q, Yang S, Seitz I, Pistikou AMM, de Greef TFA, Kostiainen MA. A Synthetic Protocell-Based Heparin Scavenger. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2201790. [PMID: 35570377 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202201790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Heparin is a commonly applied blood anticoagulant agent in clinical use. After treatment, excess heparin needs to be removed to circumvent side effects and recover the blood-clotting cascade. Most existing heparin antidotes rely on direct heparin binding and complexation, yet selective compartmentalization and sequestration of heparin would be beneficial for safety and efficiency. However, such systems have remained elusive. Herein, a semipermeable protein-based microcompartment (proteinosome) is loaded with a highly positively charged chitosan derivative, which can induce electrostatics-driven internalization of anionic guest molecules inside the compartment. Chitosan-loaded proteinosomes are subsequently employed to capture heparin, and an excellent heparin-scavenging performance is demonstrated under physiologically relevant conditions. Both the highly positive scavenger and the polyelectrolyte complex are confined and shielded by the protein compartment in a time-dependent manner. Moreover, selective heparin-scavenging behavior over serum albumin is realized through adjusting the localized scavenger or surrounding salt concentrations at application-relevant circumstances. In vitro studies reveal that the cytotoxicity of the cationic scavenger and the produced polyelectrolyte complex is reduced by protocell shielding. Therefore, the proteinosome-based systems may present a novel polyelectrolyte-scavenging method for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Liu
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (WIUCAS), Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325001, China
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, 02150, Finland
| | - Shuo Yang
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Computational Biology Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, MB, 5600, The Netherlands
| | - Iris Seitz
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, 02150, Finland
| | - Anna-Maria Makri Pistikou
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Computational Biology Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, MB, 5600, The Netherlands
| | - Tom F A de Greef
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Computational Biology Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, MB, 5600, The Netherlands
- Institute for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Nijmegen, MB, 6525, The Netherlands
- Center for Living Technologies, Alliance TU/e, WUR, UU, UMC Utrecht, Utrecht, CB 3584, The Netherlands
| | - Mauri A Kostiainen
- Biohybrid Materials, Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems, Aalto University, Espoo, 02150, Finland
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Karoui H, Patwal PS, Pavan Kumar BVVS, Martin N. Chemical Communication in Artificial Cells: Basic Concepts, Design and Challenges. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:880525. [PMID: 35720123 PMCID: PMC9199989 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.880525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, the focus of bottom-up synthetic biology has shifted from the design of complex artificial cell architectures to the design of interactions between artificial cells mediated by physical and chemical cues. Engineering communication between artificial cells is crucial for the realization of coordinated dynamic behaviours in artificial cell populations, which would have implications for biotechnology, advanced colloidal materials and regenerative medicine. In this review, we focus our discussion on molecular communication between artificial cells. We cover basic concepts such as the importance of compartmentalization, the metabolic machinery driving signaling across cell boundaries and the different modes of communication used. The various studies in artificial cell signaling have been classified based on the distance between sender and receiver cells, just like in biology into autocrine, juxtacrine, paracrine and endocrine signaling. Emerging tools available for the design of dynamic and adaptive signaling are highlighted and some recent advances of signaling-enabled collective behaviours, such as quorum sensing, travelling pulses and predator-prey behaviour, are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hedi Karoui
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR 5031, Pessac, France
| | - Pankaj Singh Patwal
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
| | - B. V. V. S. Pavan Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
- *Correspondence: B. V. V. S. Pavan Kumar, ; Nicolas Martin,
| | - Nicolas Martin
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR 5031, Pessac, France
- *Correspondence: B. V. V. S. Pavan Kumar, ; Nicolas Martin,
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