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Akbar MA, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Continuous Monitoring of Monochloramine in Water, and Its Distinction from Free Chlorine and Dichloramine Using a Functionalized Graphene-Based Array of Chemiresistors. ACS ES&T WATER 2024; 4:4041-4051. [PMID: 39296621 PMCID: PMC11407300 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.4c00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2024] [Revised: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/05/2024] [Indexed: 09/21/2024]
Abstract
Monochloramine (MCA) is commonly added to drinking water as a disinfectant to prevent pathogen growth. The generation of MCA at the treatment plant requires tight control over both pH and the ratio of free chlorine (FC) to ammonia to avoid forming undesirable byproducts such as dichloramine (DCA) and trichloramine (TCA), which can impart odor and toxicity to the water. Therefore, continuous monitoring of MCA is essential to ensuring drinking water quality. Currently, standard colorimetric methods to measure MCA rely on the use of reagents and are unsuitable for online monitoring. In addition, other oxidants can interfere with MCA measurement. Here, we present a solid-state, reagent-free MCA sensing method using an array of few-layer graphene (FLG) chemiresistors. The array consists of exfoliated FLG chemiresistors functionalized with specific redox-active molecules that have differential responses to MCA, FC, and DCA over a range of concentrations. Chemometric methods were employed to separate the analytes' responses and to generate multivariate calibration for quantification. A minimum of three sensors are required in the array to maintain full functionality. The array has been demonstrated to quantify MCA in buffered and tap water as a low-cost, reagent-free approach to continuous monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ali Akbar
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Ponnambalam Ravi Selvaganapathy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
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Darestani-Farahani M, Mendoza Montealegre I, Tavakkoli Gilavan M, Kirby T, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. A highly sensitive ion-selective chemiresistive sensor for online monitoring of lead ions in water. Analyst 2024; 149:2915-2924. [PMID: 38578133 DOI: 10.1039/d4an00159a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Dissolved lead is a serious but common health hazard in drinking water, yet there is still no practical way to monitor its levels continuously in the distribution system or at the point of use. Here we propose using a lead-selective membrane on top of a chemiresistive device to continuously measure Pb2+ ion concentrations in real time. The detection limit was lowered by stabilizing the surface of the resistive film with sodium hydroxide and 15-crown-5 ether and optimizing the sensor geometry to maximize the effective surface area. The detection mechanism is based on the complexation of the Pb2+ ions by the lead ionophores within the membrane, thus modulating the interactions between the ionophores and the chemiresistive film. The limit of detection of the fabricated devices was reliably below 2 μg L-1, with concentrations up to 3 mg L-1 routinely quantifiable over several measurement cycles. The chemiresistive sensors can thus achieve lower detection limits than potentiometric devices while being more robust and simpler to fabricate by omitting the reference electrode. Ion-selective membrane-covered chemiresistors can therefore be deployed to continuously monitor drinking water sources and detect harmful levels of lead in real time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Darestani-Farahani
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada.
| | - Isabella Mendoza Montealegre
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada.
| | - Mehraneh Tavakkoli Gilavan
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Thomas Kirby
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada.
| | - Ponnambalam Ravi Selvaganapathy
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada.
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McGarrity M, Zhao F. Graphene-Based Chemiresistor Sensors for Drinking Water Quality Monitoring. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:9828. [PMID: 38139674 PMCID: PMC10747892 DOI: 10.3390/s23249828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Revised: 12/03/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring the quality of drinking water is a crucial responsibility for all water infrastructure networks, as it guarantees access to clean water for the communities they serve. With water infrastructure deteriorating due to age and neglect, drinking water violations are on the rise in the US, underscoring the need for improved monitoring capabilities. Among the different sensor technologies, graphene-based chemiresistors have emerged as a promising technology for water quality monitoring due to advantages such as simple design, sensitivity, and selectivity. This review paper provides an overview of recent advances in the development of graphene-based chemiresistors for water quality monitoring, including principles of chemiresistive sensing, sensor design and functionalization, and performance of devices reported in the literature. The paper also discusses challenges and opportunities in the field and highlights future research directions. The development of graphene-based chemiresistors has the potential to revolutionize water quality monitoring by providing highly sensitive and cost-effective sensors that can be integrated into existing infrastructure for real-time monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Feng Zhao
- Micro/Nanoelectronic and Energy Laboratory, School of Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA 98686, USA;
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Akbar MA, Sharif O, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Identification and Quantification of Aqueous Disinfectants Using an Array of Carbon Nanotube-Based Chemiresistors. ACS APPLIED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2023; 1:3040-3052. [PMID: 38031538 PMCID: PMC10683762 DOI: 10.1021/acsaenm.3c00505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of water is essential to prevent the growth of pathogens, but at high levels, it can cause harm to human health. Therefore, accurate monitoring of disinfectant concentrations in water is essential to ensure safe drinking water. The use of multiple disinfectants at different stages in water treatment plants makes it necessary to also identify the type and concentrations of all of the disinfectant species present. Here, we demonstrate an effective approach to identify and quantify multiple disinfectants (using the example of free chlorine and potassium permanganate) in water using single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT)-based reagent-free chemiresistive sensing arrays. Facile fabrication of chemiresistive devices makes them a popular choice for the implementation of sensor arrays. Our sensing array consists of functionalized and unfunctionalized (blank) SWCNT sensors to distinguish the disinfectants. The distinct responses from the different sensors at varying concentrations and pH can be fitted to the mathematical model of a Langmuir adsorption isotherm separately for each sensor. Blank and functionalized sensors respond through different mechanisms that result in varying responses that are concentration- and pH-dependent. Chemometric techniques such as principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least-squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) were used to analyze the sensor data. PCA showed an excellent separation of the analytes over five different pHs (5.5, 6.5, 7.5, 8.5, and 9.5). PLS-DA provided excellent separability as well as good predictability with a Q2 of 94.26% and an R2 of 95.67% for the five pH regions of the two analytes. This proof-of-concept solid-state chemiresistive sensing array can be developed for specific disinfectants that are commonly used in water treatment plants and can be deployed in water distribution and monitoring facilities. We have demonstrated the applicability of chemiresistive devices in a sensor array format for the first time for aqueous disinfectant monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ali Akbar
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, Hamilton ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Omar Sharif
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, Hamilton ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - P. Ravi Selvaganapathy
- Department
of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton ON L8S 4K1, Canada
- School
of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton ON L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster
University, Hamilton ON L8S 4M1, Canada
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Darestani-Farahani M, Ma F, Patel V, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. An ion-selective chemiresistive platform as demonstrated for the detection of nitrogen species in water. Analyst 2023; 148:5731-5744. [PMID: 37840463 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01267k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
The use of ion-selective electrodes (ISE) is a well-established technique for the detection of ions in aqueous solutions but requires the use of a reference electrode. Here, we introduce a platform of ion-selective chemiresistors for the detection of nitrogen species in water as an alternative method without the need for reference electrodes. Chemiresistors have a sensitive surface that is prone to damage during operation in aqueous solutions. By applying a layer of ion-selective membrane to the surface of the chemiresistive device, the surface becomes protected and highly selective. We demonstrate both anion-selective (NO3-, NO2-) and cation-selective (NH4+) membranes. The nitrate sensors are able to measure nitrate ions in a range of 2.2-220 ppm with a detection limit of 0.3 ppm. The nitrite sensors respond between 67 ppb and 67 ppm of nitrite ions (64 ppb detection limit). The ammonium sensors can measure ammonium concentrations in a wide range from 10 ppb to 100 ppm (0.5 ppb detection limit). The fast responses to nitrate and nitrite are due to a mechanism involving electrostatic gating repulsion between negative charge carriers of the film and anions while ammonium detection arises from two mechanisms based on electrostatic gating repulsion and adsorption of ammonium ions at the surface of the p-doped chemiresistive film. The adsorption phenomenon slows down the recovery time of the ammonium sensor. This sensor design is a new platform to continuously monitor ions in industrial, domestic, and environmental water resources by robust chemiresistive devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Darestani-Farahani
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Fanqing Ma
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Vinay Patel
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada.
| | | | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
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Meskher H, Ragdi T, Thakur AK, Ha S, Khelfaoui I, Sathyamurthy R, Sharshir SW, Pandey AK, Saidur R, Singh P, Sharifian Jazi F, Lynch I. A Review on CNTs-Based Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors: Unique Properties and Potential Applications. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2023:1-24. [PMID: 36724894 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2023.2171277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), are safe, biocompatible, bioactive, and biodegradable materials, and have sparked a lot of attention due to their unique characteristics in a variety of applications, including medical and dye industries, paper manufacturing and water purification. CNTs also have a strong film-forming potential, permitting them to be widely employed in constructing sensors and biosensors. This review concentrates on the application of CNT-based nanocomposites in the production of electrochemical sensors and biosensors. It emphasizes the synthesis and optimization of CNT-based sensors for a range of applications and outlines the benefits of using CNTs for biomolecule immobilization. In addition, the use of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP)-CNTs in the production of electrochemical sensors is also discussed. The challenges faced by the current CNTs-based sensors, along with some the future perspectives and their future opportunities, are also briefly explained in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hicham Meskher
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Kasdi-Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
| | - Teqwa Ragdi
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Kasdi-Merbah University, Ouargla, Algeria
| | - Amrit Kumar Thakur
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sohmyung Ha
- Division of Engineering, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, UAE
- Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Issam Khelfaoui
- School of Insurance and Economics, University of International Business and Economics, Beijing, China
| | - Ravishankar Sathyamurthy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
- Interdisciplinary Research Center for Renewable Energy and Power Systems (IRC-REPS), King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
| | - Swellam W Sharshir
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - A K Pandey
- Research Centre for Nano-Materials and Energy Technology (RCNMET), School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
- Center for Transdisciplinary Research (CFTR), Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Services, Saveetha University, Chennai, India
- CoE for Energy and Eco-sustainability Research, Uttaranchal University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Rahman Saidur
- Research Centre for Nano-Materials and Energy Technology (RCNMET), School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
| | - Punit Singh
- Institute of Engineering and Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, GLA University Mathura, Chaumuhan, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | | | - Iseult Lynch
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Angizi S, Huang X, Hong L, Akbar MA, Selvaganapathy PR, Kruse P. Defect Density-Dependent pH Response of Graphene Derivatives: Towards the Development of pH-Sensitive Graphene Oxide Devices. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:1801. [PMID: 35683657 PMCID: PMC9181870 DOI: 10.3390/nano12111801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrate that a highly pH-sensitive substrate could be fabricated by controlling the type and defect density of graphene derivatives. Nanomaterials from single-layer graphene resembling a defect-free structure to few-layer graphene and graphene oxide with high defect density were used to demonstrate the pH-sensing mechanisms of graphene. We show the presence of three competing mechanisms of pH sensitivity, including the availability of functional groups, the electrochemical double layer, and the ion trapping that determines the overall pH response. The graphene surface was selectively functionalized with hydroxyl, amine, and carboxyl groups to understand the role and density of the graphene pH-sensitive functional groups. Later, we establish the development of highly pH-sensitive graphene oxide by controlling its defect density. This research opens a new avenue for integrating micro-nano-sized pH sensors based on graphene derivatives into next-generation sensing platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shayan Angizi
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Xianxuan Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Lea Hong
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - Md Ali Akbar
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
| | - P. Ravi Selvaganapathy
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada;
| | - Peter Kruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; (S.A.); (X.H.); (L.H.); (M.A.A.)
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Water Quality Carbon Nanotube-Based Sensors Technological Barriers and Late Research Trends: A Bibliometric Analysis. CHEMOSENSORS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors10050161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Water is the key element that defines and individualizes our planet. Relative to body weight, water represents 70% or more for the majority of all species on Earth. Taking care of water as a whole is equivalent with taking care of the entire biodiversity or the whole of humanity itself. Water quality is becoming an increasingly important component of terrestrial life, hence intensive work is being conducted to develop sensors for detecting contaminants and assessing water quality and characteristics. Our bibliometric analysis is focused on water quality sensors based on carbon nanotubes and highlights the most important objectives and achievements of researchers in recent years. Due to important measurement characteristics such as sensitivity and selectivity, or low detection limit and linearity, up to the ability to measure water properties, including detection of heavy metal content or the presence of persistent organic compounds, carbon nanotube (CNT) sensors, taking advantage of available nanotechnologies, are becoming increasingly attractive. The conducted bibliometric analysis creates a visual, more efficient keystones mapping. CNT sensors can be integrated into an inexpensive real-time monitoring data acquisition system as an alternative for classical expensive and time-consuming offline water quality monitoring. The conducted bibliometric analysis reveals all connections and maps all the results in this water quality CNT sensors research field and gives a perspective on the approached methods on this specific type of sensor. Finally, challenges related to integration of other trends that have been used and proven to be valuable in the field of other sensor types and capable to contribute to the development (and outlook) for future new configurations that will undoubtedly emerge are presented.
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Gogoi C, Nagarjun N, Rana A, Dhakshinamoorthy A, Biswas S. Diamino group-functionalized Zr-based metal-organic framework for fluorescence sensing of free chlorine in the aqueous phase and Knoevenagel condensation. Dalton Trans 2022; 51:6964-6975. [PMID: 35452068 DOI: 10.1039/d2dt00194b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
We developed a porous diamino group-functionalized Zr(IV) metal-organic framework (MOF). The synthesized MOF has a similar structure to DUT-52 (DUT = Dresden University of Technology), which has a face-centered cubic structure with an Fm3̄m space group. The synthesized material (DUT-52-(NH2)2-1) was solvent exchanged with methanol (MeOH) and activated at 100 °C overnight. Both the as-synthesized and activated materials (DUT-52-(NH2)2-1') are thermally stable until 300 °C. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area of DUT-52-(NH2)2-1' was found to be 413 m2 g-1. DUT-52-(NH2)2-1' showed a significant quenching of fluorescence response after coming in contact with free chlorine (ClO-) in an aqueous medium. The selectivity of DUT-52-(NH2)2-1' towards ClO- was not significantly hampered in the presence of any competitive ion. The limit of detection (LOD) value was found to be 0.08 μM in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH = 7.4). DUT-52-(NH2)2-1' is recyclable and very sensitive towards ClO-. Moreover, the paper strip method was developed for onsite identification of ClO-. Furthermore, the catalytic activity of DUT-52-(NH2)2-1' was tested in the Knoevenagel condensation between benzaldehyde and cyanoacetamide. The experimental results clearly indicate that DUT-52-(NH2)2-1' exhibits high activity with very high selectivity towards condensation products. The solid was reusable three times with no decay in its activity, as evidenced by powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) and fourier transform infrared (FT-IR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiranjib Gogoi
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, 781039 Assam, India.
| | - Nagarathinam Nagarjun
- School of Chemistry, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai 625 021, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Abhijeet Rana
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, 781039 Assam, India.
| | | | - Shyam Biswas
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, 781039 Assam, India.
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