A simple strategy for efficient preparation of networks based on poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline), poly(ethylene oxide), and selected biologically active compounds: Novel hydrogels with antibacterial properties

The Influence of the Structural Architecture on the Swelling Kinetics and the Network Behavior of Sodium-Alginate-Based Hydrogels Cross-Linked with Ionizing Radiation

The present work discusses the influence of the structural architecture of sodium alginate-co-acrylic acid-poly(ethylene) oxide hydrogels, crosslinked through electron beam (e-beam) radiation processing. The most important properties of the hydrogels were studied in detail to identify a correlation between the architecture of the hydrogels and their properties. Furthermore, the effect of sodium alginate (NaAlg) concentration, the amounts of the polymer blend, and the size of the samples on hydrogel properties were investigated. The results show that the hydrogels cross-linked (0.5% and 1% NaAlg) with 12.5 kGy exhibit improved physicochemical properties. High gel fraction levels (exceeding 83.5-93.7%) were achieved. Smaller hydrogel diameter (7 mm) contributed to a maximum swelling rate and degree of 20.440%. The hydrogel network was dependent on the hydrogels' diameter and the amount of polymer blend used. The hydrogels best suited the first-order rate constants and exhibited a non-Fickian diffusion character with diffusion exponent values greater than 0.5. This study indicates that the cross-linked hydrogel has good properties, particularly because of its high degree of swelling and extensive stability (more than 180 h) in water. These findings show that hydrogels can be effectively applied to the purification of water contaminated with metals, dyes, or even pharmaceuticals, as well as materials with a gradual release of bioactive chemicals and water retention.

Biocompatible, porous hydrogels composed of aliphatic polyesters and poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline). Their application as scaffolds for bone tissue regeneration

In this study, porous networks were efficiently prepared by crosslinking hydrophilic poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) (PiPOx) with dicarboxylic polyesters (HOOC-PLA-COOH or HOOC-PCL-COOH) in the presence of sodium chloride as a water-soluble porogen. Importantly, by using a relatively simple synthetic protocol, the resulting spongy materials were freely formed to the desired size and shape while maintaining stable dimensions. According to the SEM data, the porous 3D structure can be altered by the pore dimensions, which are dependent on the porogen crystal size. After porosity characterization, the mechanical properties were also evaluated via uniaxial compression and tensile tests. The porous networks formed hydrogels with a high water absorption capacity. Finally, after showing cytocompatibility by the MTT assay, we also demonstrated the applicability of the porous hydrogels as scaffolds for cell cultivation. The presented results suggest that this type of hydrogels is a promising material for tissue engineering.

Degradable Cell-Adhesive Hybrid Hydrogels by Cross-Linking of Gelatin with Poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline)

This study focused on the cross-linking of poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) (PiPOx) with gelatin to obtain strong, degradable hybrid hydrogels with good cell adhesion. The molecular weight and concentration of PiPOx and the PiPOx-to-gelatin ratio were varied to adjust the mechanical and swelling properties of the hybrid hydrogels. The swelling degree of PiPOx-gelatin hydrogels in water ranged between 1260 and 810%, with the corresponding Young's compressive moduli ranging from 77 to 215 kPa. Rheological measurements demonstrated the mechanical stability of the hydrogels. The hydrogels exhibited substantial degradation in Dulbecco's phosphate-buffered saline (DPBS) and cell culture medium within several weeks, indicating their degradability and responsiveness. The cell adhesion assay with primary human foreskin fibroblasts revealed the hybrid hydrogels are noncytotoxic and support cell attachment and proliferation. These strong hydrogels thus show excellent potential as biomedical cell scaffolds, combining the tunability and strength of PiPOx hydrogels with gelatin's cell-interactive properties while the ester-containing cross-links provide tunable degradability.

Poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) as a Versatile Functional Polymer for Biomedical Applications

Functional polymers play an important role in various biomedical applications. From many choices, poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) (PIPOx) represents a promising reactive polymer with great potential in various biomedical applications. PIPOx, with pendant reactive 2-oxazoline groups, can be readily prepared in a controllable manner via several controlled/living polymerization methods, such as living anionic polymerization, atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), reversible addition-fragmentation transfer (RAFT) or rare earth metal-mediated group transfer polymerization. The reactivity of pendant 2-oxazoline allows selective reactions with thiol and carboxylic group-containing compounds without the presence of any catalyst. Moreover, PIPOx has been demonstrated to be a non-cytotoxic polymer with immunomodulative properties. Post-polymerization functionalization of PIPOx has been used for the preparation of thermosensitive or cationic polymers, drug conjugates, hydrogels, brush-like materials, and polymer coatings available for drug and gene delivery, tissue engineering, blood-like materials, antimicrobial materials, and many others. This mini-review covers new achievements in PIPOx synthesis, reactivity, and use in biomedical applications.

Cytotoxicity and Bioimmunological Activity of Poly(2-Isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) Conjugates with Ibuprofen Using 3D Reconstructed Tissue Models

Poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) (PIPOx) represents a universal polymer platform with pendant 2-oxazoline groups, allowing the preparation of biomaterials for various biomedical applications. However, there is a lack of information on PIPOx concerning the effect of molar mass (Mn) on cytotoxicity and bioimmunological properties. Here, aqueous copper(0)-mediated reversible-deactivation radical polymerization (Cu0-RDPR) was used for the preparation of PIPOx with defined Mn and low dispersity. PIPOx of different Mn are used for the synthesis of conjugates with ibuprofen (5 mol %), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. The release of ibuprofen at 37 °C and different pH values is monitored using high-performance liquid chromatography, where the rate of drug release increases with increasing pH and lower Mn. In vitro cytotoxicity and bioimmunological properties of PIPOx and drug conjugates are studied using 3D reconstructed tissue models of the human epidermis and intestinal epithelium. We demonstrate low cytotoxicity of PIPOx and conjugates with different Mn values on both 3D tissue models.

Cationic amino-acid functionalized polymethacrylamide vectors for siRNA transfection based on modification of poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline)

Poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) (PiPOx) is a functional polymer showing great potential for the development of smart biomaterials. The straightforward synthesis and post-polymerization functionalization of PiPOx offers many opportunities for tailoring the properties of the polymer towards biomaterials. In this study we report for the first time PiPOx-based cationic charged polymethacrylamides with amino acid side chains that can complex siRNA and promote transfection in vitro. Therefore, PiPOx was fully modified via ring opening addition reactions with the carboxylic acid groups of a series of N-Boc-L-amino acids and their reaction kinetics were investigated. Based on the determined kinetic constants, another series of PiPOx-based copolymers with balanced hydrophilic/hydrophobic content of N-Boc-L-amino acids were obtained via one-pot modification reaction with two different N-Boc-L-amino acids. The N-Boc protected homopolymers and related copolymers were deprotected to obtain (co)polymers with the targeted side chain cationic charged units. The (co)polymers' structures were fully investigated via FT-IR and 1H NMR spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography (SEC), and TGA-DSC-MS analysis. The polarimetry measurements revealed that the homopolymers retain their chiroptical properties after post-modification, and a sign inversion is noticed from (L) N-Boc-protected analogues to (D) for the TFA cationic charged homopolymers. Generally, cationically charged homopolymers with hydrophilic amino acids on the side chain showed efficient complexation of siRNA, but poor transfection while cationic copolymers having both tryptophan and valine or proline side chains revealed moderate siRNA binding, high transfection efficiency (> 90% of the cells) and potent gene silencing with IC50 values down to 5.5 nM. Particularly, these cationic copolymers showed higher gene silencing potency as compared to the commercial JetPRIME® reference, without reducing cell viability in the concentration range used for transfection, making this a very interesting system for in vitro siRNA transfection.

The Preparation and Properties of Amino-Carboxymethyl Chitosan-Based Antibacterial Hydrogel Loaded with ε-Polylysine

In this paper, amino-carboxymethyl chitosan (ACC) was prepared through amino carboxymethylation, which introduces -COOH and -NH2 groups to the chitosan (CS) chains. Meanwhile, dialdehyde starch (DAS) was produced by oxidizing corn starch using sodium periodate. To attain the optimal loading and long-time release of ε-polylysine (ε-PL), the ACC/DAS hydrogels were synthesized through the Schiff base reaction between the amino group on ACC and the aldehyde group in DAS. The molecular structure, microcosmic properties, loading capacity, and bacteriostatic properties of the four types of hydrogels containing different mass concentrations of ACC were investigated. The results showed that the dynamic imine bond C=N existed in the ACC/DAS hydrogels, which proved that the hydrogels were formed by the cross-linking of the Schiff base reaction. With the increasing mass concentration of the ACC, the cross-sectional morphology of the hydrogel became smoother, the thermal stability increased, and the swelling behavior was gradually enhanced. The tight network structure improved the ε-PL loading efficiency, with the highest value of 99.2%. Moreover, the loading of ε-PL gave the hydrogel good antibacterial properties. These results indicate that ACC/DAS hydrogel is potential in food preservation.

Covalent segmented polymer networks composed of poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) and selected aliphatic polyesters: designing biocompatible amphiphilic materials containing degradable blocks

To promote facile and efficient synthesis of segmented covalent networks, we developed a cross-linking process with reactive polymeric components in a system without catalysts or side products. To achieve the direct formation of amphiphilic networks, an addition reaction was performed between the polyesters containing carboxyl terminal groups with pendant groups distributed along poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) chains. Covalent cross-linking was achieved from predetermined amounts of components dissolved in DMSO at 140 °C. To tune the properties of the resulting networks, the composition and length of the polyester segments and the degree of cross-linking were changed in the feed. The chemical structure of the networks was characterized using Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflection spectroscopy and 13C magic-angle spinning NMR. The swelling ability of the formed networks was investigated in aqueous and organic media. Moreover, mechanical properties were tested during uniaxial compression. The cytocompatibility of the scaffolds was confirmed by MTT assay. Through the results obtained, the first report describing the cross-linking of polyesters on hydrophilic PiPOx was provided to prepare new, biocompatible materials with tuneable properties that are promising for potential biomedical applications.

Poly(N-allyl acrylamide) as a Reactive Platform toward Functional Hydrogels

The synthesis of poly(N-allyl acrylamide) (PNAllAm) as a platform for the preparation of functional hydrogels is described. The PNAllAm was synthesized via organocatalyzed amidation of poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA) with allylamine and characterized by ¹H NMR spectroscopy, size exclusion chromatography (SEC), and turbidimetry, which allowed an estimation of the lower critical solution temperature of ∼26 °C in water. The PNAllAm was then used to make functional hydrogels via photoinitiated thiol-ene chemistry, where dithiothreitol (DTT) was used to cross-link the polymer chains. In addition, mercaptoethanol (ME) was added as a functional thiol to modulate the hydrogel properties. A decrease of the volume-phase transition temperature of the resulting hydrogels was observed with increasing ME content. Altogether this work introduces a straightforward way for the preparation of PNAllAm from PMA and demonstrates its value as a reactive polymer platform for the generation of functional hydrogels.

Poly(2-oxazoline)s as Stimuli-Responsive Materials for Biomedical Applications: Recent Developments of Polish Scientists

Poly(2-oxazoline)s are the synthetic polymers that are the products of the cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP) of 2-oxazoline monomers. Due to their beneficial properties, from which biocompatibility, stealth behavior, high functionalization possibilities, low dispersity, stability, nonionic character, and solubility in water and organic solvents should be noted, they have found many applications and gained enormous interest from scientists. Additionally, with high versatility attainable through copolymerization or through post-polymerization modifications, this class of polymeric systems has been widely used as a polymeric platform for novel biomedical applications. The chemistry of polymers significant expanded into biomedical applications, in which polymeric networks can be successfully used in pharmaceutical development for tissue engineering, gene therapies, and also drug delivery systems. On the other hand, there is also a need to create ‘smart’ polymer biomaterials, responsive to the specified factor, that will be sensitive to various environmental stimuli. The commonly used stimuli-responsive biomedical materials are based mostly on temperature-, light-, magnetic-, electric-, and pH-responsive systems. Thus, creating selective and responsive materials that allow personalized treatment is in the interest of the scientific world. This review article focuses on recent discoveries by Polish scientists working in the field of stimuli-responsive poly(2-oxazoline)s, and their work is compared and contrasted with results reported by other world-renowned specialists.

Poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) as a reactive polymer for materials development

Poly(2-isopropenyl-2-oxazoline) has attracted growing interest as a reactive polymer that can be used as a starting material for the construction of more complex structures.