Comparison of rocuronium and suxamethonium for use during rapid sequence induction of anaesthesia

Should rocuronium and sugammadex replace succinylcholine for airway emergencies in class B ambulatory anesthesia settings?

INTRODUCTION

In class B surgical facilities, where only oral or intravenous (IV) sedation is employed without the administration of volatile anesthetics, laryngospasm is among the most common airway complications. However, these facilities generally do not stock succinylcholine to avoid the cost of storing dantrolene for the treatment of malignant hyperthermia (MH). High dose IV rocuronium with sugammadex reversal has been suggested as an alternative to succinylcholine for airway emergencies. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the clinical utility, patient safety, and financial implications of replacing succinylcholine with rocuronium and sugammadex in lieu of stocking dantrolene in class B facilities.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A systematic review of the literature concerning neuromuscular blockade for airway emergencies in class B settings in adult patients was conducted. The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched for published studies from January 1, 1990, to October 1, 2021. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system was used to assess the certainty of evidence.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

The search strategy yielded 1124 articles. After review, 107 articles were included, with 49 graded as "strong" evidence to provide recommendations for the posed questions.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of succinylcholine in isolation without volatile agents has a low incidence of triggering MH. Laryngospasm is a common airway emergency that requires immediate treatment to avoid morbidity and mortality. Both succinylcholine and rocuronium-sugammadex provide adequate treatment of airway emergencies and rapid return of spontaneous ventilation, but succinylcholine has a superior economic and clinical profile.

Effects of magnesium sulphate on the onset time of rocuronium at different doses: a randomized clinical trial

Background and aims

Rocuronium may provide excellent onset time, but high doses are required for effective action. Several strategies have managed to shorten rocuronium onset time, including the use of Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO₄).

Methods

One hundred and eighty patients were randomized into six groups according to rocuronium dose received (0.3, 0.6 or 1.2 mg.kg^-1) and the administration of saline or MgSO⁴ (60 mg.kg^-1). Correlations between tissue perfusion and rocuronium onset time was determined by variations in perfusion index.

Results

Median (quartiles) rocuronium onset times were 85.5 (74.0–92.0); 76.0 (52.0–87.0) and 50.0 (41.0–59.5) seconds for 0.3, 0.6 mg.kg^-1 and 1.2 mg.kg^-1 doses, respectively. MgSO₄ decreased rocuronium onset at doses of 0.3 mg.kg^-1 (60.0 [48.0–74.3] seconds) and 0.6 mg.kg^-1 (44.0 [39.0–49.0] seconds) but not at 1.2 mg.kg^-1 (38.0 [33.5–56.3] seconds) (p < 0.001). Perfusion index variations in groups that received MgSO₄ were greater than in controls. A negative correlation between shorten onset and increased perfusion index was observed in rocuronium doses of 0.3 mg.kg^-1 (r = -0.50; p < 0.001) and 0.6 mg.kg^-1 (r = -0.424; p < 0.001), but not for 1.2 mg.kg^-1 dose (r = -0.25; p = 0.07).

Conclusion

MgSO₄ reduces rocuronium onset time at doses of 0.3 mg.kg^-1 and 0.6 mg.kg^-1 being that the latter has a similar effect when compared to the dose of 1.2 mg.kg^-1, with or without the use of MgSO₄.

Trial registry at

http://www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/

Registry Number

RBR-96CY3K

The Pregnant Trauma Patient

Trauma is the leading non-obstetric cause of maternal death. Optimal management of the pregnant trauma patient requires a multidisciplinary approach. The anaesthetist and critical care physician play a pivotal role in the entire continuum of fetomaternal care, from initial assessment, resuscitation and intraoperative management, to postoperative care that often involves critical care support and patient transfer. Primary goals are aggressive resuscitation of the mother and maintenance of uteroplacental perfusion and fetal oxygenation by the avoidance of hypoxia, hypotension, hypocapnia, acidosis and hypothermia. Recognizing and understanding the mechanisms of injury, the factors that may predict fetal outcome, and the pathophysiological changes that can result from trauma, will allow early identification and treatment of fetomaternal injury. This in turn should improve morbidity and mortality. A framework for the acute care of the pregnant trauma patient is presented.

The effect of low-dose rocuronium on rapid tracheal intubation using a video laryngoscope: A randomized double blind controlled study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to investigate the clinical effectiveness of rocuronium in low doses on conditions during rapid tracheal intubation using video laryngoscope.

METHODS

Ninety-eight patients undergoing otolaryngologic surgery were randomly divided into 2 groups: group L using 0.3 mg/kg of rocuronium intravenously (n = 49) and group C using 0.6 mg/kg of rocuronium (n = 49). Sixty seconds after rocuronium administration, tracheal intubation was performed using a video laryngoscope. The overall intubation condition was evaluated along with specific conditions, including laryngoscopy condition, vocal cord position, and intubation response. Intubation profiles, including Cormack-Lehane grade, 1st attempt success rate, and intubation time, were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Overall intubation conditions showed a significant difference between group L and group C (P = .003). Although the incidence of vigorous response after tracheal intubation was higher in group L than in group C (P = .022), laryngoscopy condition and vocal cord position were similar between the 2 groups (P = .145 and .070, respectively). Intubation profiles showed no differences between the 2 groups. The frequency and amount of additional rocuronium administration during surgery were also similar.

CONCLUSIONS

Low-dose rocuronium provided significantly worse overall intubation conditions compared to the conventional dose of rocuronium for rapid tracheal intubation. However, when using a video laryngoscope, it may provide clinically acceptable laryngeal muscle relaxation.

Collective Review of the Status of Rapid Sequence Intubation Drugs of Choice in Trauma in Low- and Middle-Income Settings (Prehospital, Emergency Department and Operating Room Setting)

INTRODUCTION

Establishing a definitive airway in order to ensure adequate ventilation and oxygenation is an important aspect of resuscitation of the polytrauma patient .

AIM

To review the relevant literature that compares the different drugs used for rapid sequence intubation (RSI) of trauma patients, specifically reviewing: premedication, induction agents and neuromuscular blocking agents across the prehospital, emergency department and operating room setting, and to present the best practices based on the reviewed evidence.

METHOD

A literature review of rapid sequence intubation in the trauma population was carried out, specifically comparison of the drugs used (induction agent, neuromuscular blocking drugs and adjuncts).

DISCUSSION

Studies involving the comparison of drugs used in RSI in, specifically, the trauma patient are sparse. The majority of studies have compared induction agents, etomidate, ketamine and propofol, as well as the neuromuscular blocking agents, succinylcholine and rocuronium.

CONCLUSION

There currently exists great variation in the practice of RSI; however, in trauma the RSI armamentarium is limited to agents that maintain hemodynamic stability, provide adequate intubating conditions in the shortest time period and do not have detrimental effects on cerebral perfusion pressure. Further, multicenter randomized controlled studies to confirm the benefits of the currently used agents in trauma are required.

A comparative study of effect of sevoflurane on intubating conditions with rocuronium in neurosurgical patients

Background and Aims:

Rocuronium may not always be the preferred relaxant for rapid sequence intubation. When 2% sevoflurane is used in conjunction with rocuronium, it may reduce the time required for achieving complete skeletal muscle relaxation with the intubating dose of rocuronium.

Methods:

This study was prospective, randomised, double-blind in nature and compared the effect of sevoflurane on intubation time and intubating conditions when used along with rocuronium. Thirty adult patients belonging to American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status Grades 1 and 2, of either gender aged between 30 and 65 years undergoing neurosurgical operations were randomly allocated into two equal groups: Group R received 0.8 mg/kg rocuronium, and Group RS received 0.8 mg/kg of rocuronium with 2% sevoflurane. Onset time of intubation was assessed using train-of-four stimuli. The intubating conditions were compared using the Cooper scoring system and the haemodynamic responses were compared between the two groups.

Results:

The onset time of intubation was 101.73 ± 10.28 s in Group R and 60.4 ± 4.1 s in Group RS (P < 0.001), with excellent intubating conditions in both groups and without any adverse effects. Significant differences in heart rate and mean arterial pressure were seen immediately after intubation, at 1 and 3 min (P < 0.05) between the two groups.

Conclusion:

Rocuronium 0.8 mg/kg along with 2% sevoflurane provides excellent intubating conditions within 60–66 s from its administration.

Rocuronium versus succinylcholine for rapid sequence induction intubation

BACKGROUND

Patients often require a rapid sequence induction (RSI) endotracheal intubation technique during emergencies or electively to protect against aspiration, increased intracranial pressure, or to facilitate intubation. Traditionally succinylcholine has been the most commonly used muscle relaxant for this purpose because of its fast onset and short duration; unfortunately, it can have serious side effects. Rocuronium has been suggested as an alternative to succinylcholine for intubation. This is an update of our Cochrane review published first in 2003 and then updated in 2008 and now in 2015.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether rocuronium creates intubating conditions comparable to those of succinylcholine during RSI intubation.

SEARCH METHODS

In our initial review we searched all databases until March 2000, followed by an update to June 2007. This latest update included searching the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL; 2015, Issue 2), MEDLINE (1966 to February Week 2 2015), and EMBASE (1988 to February 14 2015 ) for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or controlled clinical trials (CCTs) relating to the use of rocuronium and succinylcholine. We included foreign language journals and handsearched the references of identified studies for additional citations.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included any RCT or CCT that reported intubating conditions in comparing the use of rocuronium and succinylcholine for RSI or modified RSI in any age group or clinical setting. The dose of rocuronium was at least 0.6 mg/kg and succinylcholine was at least 1 mg/kg.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors (EN and DT) independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality for the 'Risk of bias' tables. We combined the outcomes in Review Manager 5 using a risk ratio (RR) with a random-effects model.

MAIN RESULTS

The previous update (2008) had identified 53 potential studies and included 37 combined for meta-analysis. In this latest update we identified a further 13 studies and included 11, summarizing the results of 50 trials including 4151 participants. Overall, succinylcholine was superior to rocuronium for achieving excellent intubating conditions: RR 0.86 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.81 to 0.92; n = 4151) and clinically acceptable intubation conditions (RR 0.97, 95% CI 0.95 to 0.99; n = 3992, 48 trials). A high incidence of detection bias amongst the trials coupled with significant heterogeneity provides moderate-quality evidence for these conclusions, which are unchanged from the previous update. Succinylcholine was more likely to produce excellent intubating conditions when using thiopental as the induction agent: RR 0.81 (95% CI: 0.73 to 0.88; n = 2302, 28 trials). In the previous update, we had concluded that propofol was the superior induction agent with succinylcholine. There were no reported incidences of severe adverse outcomes. We found no statistical difference in intubation conditions when succinylcholine was compared to 1.2 mg/kg rocuronium; however, succinylcholine was clinically superior as it has a shorter duration of action.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Succinylcholine created superior intubation conditions to rocuronium in achieving excellent and clinically acceptable intubating conditions.

Intubating Conditions of two Different Doses of Rocuronium At 60 Seconds; by Clinical Assessment; and with T.O.F Response of Adductor Pollicis Muscle

BACKGROUND

At 60 seconds, 2xED95 dose (0.6mg/kg) of rocuronium is frequently used for intubation. Some studies suggest 3XED95 (0.9mg/kg body weight) dose in achieving excellent intubating conditions. In this context, present study aimed at comparing intubating conditions with these two doses of rocuronium, using clinical criteria by cooper's score; assisted with adductor pollicis T.O.F response.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Present prospective randomized comparative clinical study was conducted on 60 patients subjected for general anaesthesia. Induction was done with fentanyl (1mcg/kg body weight) and propofol (2mg/kg body weight) and relaxation achieved with Rocuronium 0.6 mg/kg (Group A-30 cases); 0.9mg/kg (Group B- 30 cases). (n=30) intubation was done at 60 seconds. Intubating conditions were assessed clinically by cooper's score.T.O.F responses of AP by visual and tactile means.

RESULTS

Intubating conditions clinically were excellent in 16 cases (53%), good in 12 cases (40%), and fair in 2 cases (7%) respectively in Group-A. In group-B excellent in 29 cases (97%) and good in 1case (3%). In group A in no case TOF-0 achieved. TOF 1, 2, 3, and 4 were observed in 1 case (3%), 7 cases (23%) 16 cases (54%) and 6 cases (20%) respectively. Whereas in group B, TOF 0, 1, 2, 3 were observed in 18 cases (61%), 4 cases (13%), 7 cases (23%) and 1 case (3%). In no case TOF-4 observed. Chi square test (p<0.0001) confirmed a highly significant statistical difference with respect to elicited TOFcounts, and intubating conditions achieved.

CONCLUSION

3xED95 dose of Rocuronium achieves more intense NMB and better conditions for intubation at 60 seconds than 2ED 95 dose.

Rocuronium Versus Suxamethonium: A Survey of First-line Muscle Relaxant Use in UK Prehospital Rapid Sequence Induction

INTRODUCTION

Prehospital anaesthesia in the United Kingdom (UK) is provided by Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) and British Association for Immediate Care (BASICS), a road-based service. Muscle relaxation in rapid sequence induction (RSI) has been traditionally undertaken with the use of suxamethonium; however, rocuronium at higher doses has comparable intubating conditions with fewer side effects.

HYPOTHESIS/PROBLEM

The aim of this survey was to establish how many prehospital services in the UK are now using rocuronium as first line in RSI.

METHODS

An online survey was constructed identifying choice of first-line muscle relaxant for RSI and emailed to lead clinicians for BASICS and HEMS services across the UK. If rocuronium was used, further questions regarding optimal dose, sugammadex, contraindications, and difference in intubating conditions were asked.

RESULTS

A total of 29 full responses (93.5%) were obtained from 31 services contacted. Suxamethonium was used first line by 17 prehospital services (58.6%) and rocuronium by 12 (41.4%). In 11 services (91.7%), a dose of 1 mg/kg of rocuronium was used, and in one service, 1.2 mg/kg (8.3%) was used. No services using rocuronium carried sugammadex. In five services, slower relaxation time was found using rocuronium (41.7%), and in seven services, no difference in intubation conditions were noted (58.3%). Contraindications to rocuronium use included high probability of difficult airway and anaphylaxis.

CONCLUSION

Use of rocuronium as first-line muscle relaxant in prehospital RSI is increasing. Continued auditing of practice will ascertain which services have adopted change and identify if complications of failed intubation increase as a result.

Emergency Resuscitation of Patients Enrolled in the US Diaspirin Cross-linked Hemoglobin (DCLHb) Clinical Efficacy Trial

INTRODUCTION

Optimal emergent management of traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients requires a better understanding of treatment provided in the prehospital/Emergency Medical Services (EMS) and emergency department (ED) settings. Hypothesis/Problem Described in this research are the initial clinical status, airway management, fluid and blood infusions, and time course of severely-injured hemorrhagic shock patients in the EMS and ED settings from the diaspirin cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb) clinical trial.

METHODS

Data were analyzed from 17 US trauma centers gathered during a randomized, controlled, single-blinded efficacy trial of a hemoglobin solution (DCLHb) as add-on therapy versus standard therapy.

RESULTS

Among the 98 randomized patients, the mean EMS Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) was 10.6 (SD = 5.0), the mean EMS revised trauma score (RTS) was 6.3 (SD = 1.9), and the mean injury severity score (ISS) was 31 (SD = 17). Upon arrival to the ED, the GCS was 20% lower (7.8 (SD = 5.3) vs 9.7 (SD = 6.3)) and the RTS was 12% lower (5.3 (SD = 2.0) vs 6.0 (SD = 2.1)) than EMS values in blunt trauma patients (P < .001). By ED disposition, 80% of patients (78/98) were intubated. Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) was utilized in 77% (60/78), most often utilizing succinylcholine (65%) and midazolam (50%). The mean crystalloid volume infused was 4.2 L (SD = 3.4 L), 80% of which was infused within the ED. Emergency department blood transfusion occurred in 62% of patients, with an average transfused volume of 1.2 L (SD = 2.0 L). Blunt trauma patients received 2.1 times more total fluids (7.4 L vs 3.5 L, < .001) and 2.4 times more blood (2.4 L vs 1.0 L, P < .001). The mean time of patients taken from injury site to operating room (OR) was 113 minutes (SD = 87 minutes). Twenty-one (30%) of the 70 patients taken to the OR from the ED were sent within 60 minutes of the estimated injury time. Penetrating trauma patients were taken to the OR 52% sooner than blunt trauma patients (72 minutes vs 149 minutes, P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Both GCS and RTS decreased prior to ED arrival in blunt trauma patients. Intubation was performed using RSI, and crystalloid infusion of three times the estimated blood loss volume (L) and blood transfusion of the estimated blood loss volume (L) were provided in the EMS and ED settings. Surgical intervention for these trauma patients most often occurred more than one hour from the time of injury. Penetrating trauma patients received surgical intervention more rapidly than those with a blunt trauma mechanism.

Influence of obstructive jaundice on pharmacodynamics of rocuronium

BACKGROUND

Anesthetics are variable in patients with obstructive jaundice. The minimum alveolar concentration awake of desflurane is reduced in patients with obstructive jaundice, while it has no effect on pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of propofol. In this study, we investigated the influence of obstructive jaundice on the pharmacodynamics and blood concentration of rocuronium.

METHODS

Included in this study were 26 control patients and 27 patients with obstructive jaundice. Neuromuscular block of rocuronium was monitored by acceleromyography. Onset time, spontaneous recovery of the height of twitch first (T1) to 25% of the final T1 value (Duration 25%, Dur 25%), recovery index (RI), and spontaneous recovery of train-of-four (TOF) ratios to 70% were measured. The plasma rocuronium concentrations were determined by high performance liquid chromatography using berberine as an internal standard.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference in onset time between the two groups. The Dur 25%, the recovery index and the time of recovery of the TOF ratios to 70% were all prolonged in the obstructive jaundice group compared with the control group. The plasma concentration of rocuronium at 60, 90 and 120 min after bolus administration was significantly higher in the obstructive jaundice group.

CONCLUSIONS

The neuromuscular blockade by rocuronium is prolonged in obstructive jaundice patients, and therefore precautions should be taken in case of postoperative residual neuromuscular block. The possible reason is impedance of rocuronium excretion due to biliary obstruction and increased plasma unbound rocuronium because of free bilirubin competing with it for albumin binding.

[Modified rapid sequence induction for Caesarian sections : case series on the use of rocuronium and sugammadex]

BACKGROUND

Aspiration is a feared complication of anesthesia and is accompanied by increased morbidity and mortality. Rapid sequence induction (RSI) describes the preferred procedure to perform endotracheal placement of the tubus in emergency cases of patients with an increased risk of aspiration of gastric contents. For more than 50 years RSI has consisted of the application of suxamethonium for neuromuscular blockade because of its fast onset and ultra short duration. Due to the serious side effects of suxamethonium attempts were made to find better alternative neuromuscular blocking drugs, e.g. rocuronium, to perform RSI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this small clinical series RSI was performed for general anesthesia of ten pregnant women for Caesarean sections using 1.0 mg/kgBW rocuronium for induction and maintaining deep relaxation until the end of surgery. For rapid reversal of the neuromuscular blockade to a train-of-four (TOF) ratio of 0.9, the µ-cyclodextrin sugammadex was administered at the end of surgery. Major and minor side effects, such as cardiac dysrhythmia, anaphylactic reactions, hoarseness and postoperative nausea and vomiting were documented.

CONCLUSIONS

The combination of rocuronium and sugammadex for RSI combines rapid onset and rapid reversal of neuromuscular blockades with avoidance of serious side effects and very comfortable conditions for intubation in all cases. Minor side effects such as hoarseness, throat discomfort (in up to 30%) and myalgia (10%) for up to 48 h were documented.

Effect of ephedrine on intubating conditions created by propofol and rocuronium: a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of ephedrine on intubation conditions (ICs) one minute after anesthesia induction using propofol and rocuronium.

METHODS

PubMed, EMbase, The Cochrane Library, ISI Web of Knowledge, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database, Google Scholar, and other databases were searched from inception to September 2012 to collect relevant randomized clinical trials (RCTs). We evaluated the risk of bias of the included studies by the Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool and analyzed the data using RevMan 5.1. As the outcomes, excellent ICs, clinically acceptable ICs and side effects were evaluated with risk ratios (RRs).

RESULTS

Five RCTs involving 396 patients were identified. The results of the meta-analysis demonstrated that ephedrine increased the rate of excellent ICs (RR = 2.40, 95% CI 1.89 to 3.05), but had no effects on the rate of clinically acceptable ICs (RR = 1.15, 95% CI 0.93 to 1.42) and the incidence of side effects (RR = 2.00, 95% CI 0.19 to 21.36). Besides, the results of subgroup analysis showed that both low dose and high dose of ephedrine increased the rate of excellent ICs, but only low dose increased the rate of clinically acceptable ICs. The results of sensitive analysis showed that both favored ephedrine (excellent ICs: RR = 2.54, 95% CI 1.69 to 3.83; clinically acceptable ICs: RR = 1.21, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.38).

CONCLUSION

Ephedrine, without extra side effects, created superior ICs one minute after anesthesia induction using propofol and rocuronium, and low dose (i.e., 70-100 μg/kg) is recommended as the possible optimal dose.

Comparison of intubating conditions between rocuronium with priming and without priming: Randomized and double-blind study

BACKGROUND

Rocuronium produces faster neuromuscular blockade compared with other neuromuscular blocking drugs. It produces comparable intubating conditions to that of succinylcholine, but does not have the short intubation time of the latter. Hence, it may not be preferable for rapid sequence intubation, but rocuronium with priming may produce comparable intubating time and conditions to that of succinylcholine. Rocuronium with priming may be an alternative to succinylcholine in rapid sequence intubation in conditions where succinylcholine is contraindicated. The present study was conducted to compare the intubating conditions and intubation time of rocuronium with and without priming.

METHODS

Sixty patients of ASA physical status I and II, aged between 18 and 60 years, of both sexes, were divided into priming and control groups of 30 each. Patients in the priming group received 0.06 mg/kg of rocuronium and those in the control group received normal saline. All patients received fentanyl 1 μg/kg, followed by thiopentone 5 mg/kg for induction. Intubating dose of rocuronium 0.54 mg/kg in the priming group and 0.6 mg/kg in the control group were administered 3 min after priming. Onset time of intubation was assessed using a Train of Four stimuli, and the intubating conditions were compared by the Cooper scoring system.

RESULTS

The onset time of intubation was 50.67±7.39 s in the priming group and 94.00±11.62 s in the control group, with excellent intubating conditions in both the groups and without any adverse effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Priming with rocuronium provides excellent intubating conditions in less than 60 s with no adverse effects.

Effect of ulinastatin on the rocuronium-induced neuromuscular blockade

BACKGROUND

Ulinastatin is a glycoprotein derived from human urine and a serine protease inhibitor found in human urine and blood. Ulinastatin increases both liver blood flow and urine output. Rocuronium is eliminated mainly through the liver and partly through the kidney, hepatic elimination of rocuronium might be enhanced by ulinastatin. We examined the effect of ulinastatin on the neuromuscular block caused by rocuronium.

METHODS

Forty four adult patients were randomly divided into two groups of 22 patients each, i.e. the study group and the control group. In the study group, a bolus dose of ulinastatin 5,000 U/kg was administered 2 min before the injection of rocuronium 0.6 mg/kg. In the control group, normal saline was administered instead of ulinastatin. For the monitoring of both onset and recovery from neuromuscular blockade, train-of-four (TOF) and post-tetanic count were used with TOF-Watch Sx. All patients underwent general anesthesia with total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) of remifentanil and propofol, using the effect site target infusion system.

RESULTS

In the study group, the onset of neuromuscular block was significantly slower than in the control group (P < 0.05). The recovery time from the rocuronium injection to the return of PTC was also significantly shorter in the study group than in the control group (P < 0.05). Similarly, times to the return of T1, T2, T3, and T4 (i.e. the first, second, third, and fourth response of TOF) were significantly shorter in the study group than in the control group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Ulinastatin significantly delays the onset of neuromuscular block and accelerates the recovery from the block caused by rocuronium.

Comparison of intubating conditions following administration of low-dose rocuronium or succinylcholine in adults: A randomized double blind study

CONTEXT

Though rocuronium has a rapid onset of neuromuscular blockade like succinylcholine without the latter's adverse effects, its use is limited due to its prolonged action.

AIM

Aim was to evaluate whether reducing the intubating dose of rocuronium shortens its duration of action, yet provides clinically acceptable intubating conditions.

SETTINGS AND DESIGN

tt was a prospective, randomized, and double blind trial.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

100 American Society of Anaesthesiologists Physical Status (ASAPS) I or II patients aged between 18-65 years scheduled for elective surgery were randomly allotted one of the four rocuronium groups (rocuronium dose of 0.3 mg/kg intubated at 60 s or at 90 s, rocuronium 0.6 mg/kg intubated at 60 s or at 90 s) orsuccinylcholine group (succinylcholine 1.0 mg/kg intubated at 60 s) and intubating conditions were assessed with: Ease of laryngoscopy, vocal cord position, and reaction to insertion of tracheal tube and cuff inflation.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Statistical tests used were analysis of variance (ANOVA), Chi-Square test, Repeated measures of ANOVA and Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

Rocuronium in dosage of 0.3 mg/kg gaveclinically acceptable intubating conditions in 35% and 60% subjects at 60 s or 90 s, respectively, whereas in dosage of 0.6 mg/kg, intubating conditions were acceptable in 80% and 100% subjects intubated at 60 s and 90 s.

CONCLUSION

Rocuronium in dose of 0.3 mg/kg does not give clinically acceptable intubating conditions at 60 or 90 s but has shorter duration of action. Rocuronium in dose of 0.6 mg/kg gives clinically acceptable intubating conditions at 60 or 90 s, comparable to succinylcholine 1 mg/kg.

Acute lung failure

Lung failure is the most common organ failure seen in the intensive care unit. The pathogenesis of acute respiratory failure (ARF) can be classified as (1) neuromuscular in origin, (2) secondary to acute and chronic obstructive airway diseases, (3) alveolar processes such as cardiogenic and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema and pneumonia, and (4) vascular diseases such as acute or chronic pulmonary embolism. This article reviews the more common causes of ARF from each group, including the pathological mechanisms and the principles of critical care management, focusing on the supportive, specific, and adjunctive therapies for each condition.

Airway management in critically ill patients

In critically ill patients, endotracheal intubation is associated with a high risk of complications, including severe hypoxemia and hypotension. The purpose of this review is to discuss the definitions, complications, airway assessment, and patient optimization with respect to these patients. In addition, we present different approaches and techniques to help secure the airway in critically ill patients. We also discuss strategies to help minimize the risk of a difficult or failed airway and to mitigate the severe life-threatening complications associated with this high-risk procedure.

Desaturation following rapid sequence induction using succinylcholine vs. rocuronium in overweight patients

BACKGROUND

Rapid sequence induction may be associated with hypoxemia. The purpose of this study was to investigate the possible difference in desaturation during rapid sequence induction in overweight patients using either succinylcholine or rocuronium.

METHODS

Sixty patients with a body mass index (BMI) between 25 and 30 kg/m², American Society of Anesthesiologists class I or II, undergoing general anesthesia were randomly divided into a succinylcholine group and a rocuronium group. After a 3-min preoxygenation, patients received rapid sequence induction of general anesthesia with midazolum-fentanyl-propofol and succinylcholine (1.5 mg/kg) or rocuronium (0.9 mg/kg). Ventilation was not initiated until oxygen saturation declined to 92%. We measured the times when oxygen saturation reached 98%, 96%, 94% and 92%. Safe Apnea Time was defined as the time from administration of neuromuscular blocking drugs to oxygen saturation fell to 92%. The recovery period was defined as the time from initiation of ventilation until oxygen saturation was 97%. Arterial blood gases were taken at baseline, after preoxygenation and at 92% oxygen saturation.

RESULTS

The mean Safe Apnea Time (95% CI) was 283 (257-309) s in succinylcholine vs. 329 (303-356) s in rocuronium (P=0.01). The mean recovery period (95% CI) was 43 (39-48) s in succinylcholine vs. 36 (33-38) s in rocuronium (P=0.002). Blood gas analysis showed no difference between the two groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Succinylcholine was associated with a significantly more rapid desaturation and longer recovery of oxygen saturation than rocuronium during rapid sequence induction in overweight patients.

Is the rapid sequence induction possible with 0.6 mg/kg rocuronium in pediatric patient?

Background

We have investigated the possibility of rocuronium 0.6 mg/kg and timing principle application with the same dose for rapid sequence induction (RSI) in 65 children, aged 4-8 yr.

Methods

Sixty five patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups; Group A (n = 31, timing principle application) received rocuronium (0.6 mg/kg) followed by administration of propofol (2.5 mg/kg), and group B (n = 36) received rocuronium (0.6 mg/kg) after administration of propofol. Intubation was assessed at 60 seconds just after administration of last injectants. Intubating conditions (jaw relaxation, vocal cord movement, and response to tracheal intubation) were evaluated as excellent, good, fair and poor.

Results

Excellent intubation conditions were obtained in 87% in group A and 61% in group B. However, clinically acceptable intubation conditions which means excellent and good did not show any significant difference as 100% (group A) and 99% (group B).

Conclusions

In cases of pediatiric patients undergoing elective surgery, RSI was possible irrespective of the use of timing principle.

Sugammadex in clinical practice

The availability of sugammadex allows greater flexibility in the use of rocuronium and vecuronium during anaesthesia and surgery. The neuromuscular block induced by both drugs can be reversed from both superficial and deep levels of block by adjusting the dose of sugammadex. The dose of sugammadex for reversal of shallow block produced by these neuromuscular blocking drugs is approximately 2 mg.kg(-1) and for deep block the dose is 4 mg.kg(-1). A larger dose of sugammadex (16 mg.kg(-1)) administered 3 min after the neuromuscular blocking drug allows rapid reversal of a neuromuscular block induced by 1-1.2 mg.kg(-1) of rocuronium, thereby raising the possibility of using rocuronium as a replacement for suxamethonium. The use of sugammadex has not been reported to be associated with recurrence of block provided a dose that is adequate for reversal has been used. Sugammadex appears to have an acceptable safety profile. There are no requirements for dose adjustment for age or the use of potent volatile anaesthetic agents.

Newer agents for rapid sequence intubation: etomidate and rocuronium

The emergency airway management of children and adolescents with critical illnesses may necessitate rapid sequence intubation with a sedating and a neuromuscular blocking agent. Etomidate and rocuronium have become increasingly popular for the sedation and paralysis, respectively, of pediatric patients in rapid sequence intubation, and there are many advantages to the use of both agents. Both etomidate and rocuronium have a rapid onset of action, and both agents are relatively free of hemodynamic adverse effects. Etomidate does, however, suppress adrenal function, and consequently, its use in patients with septic shock is controversial. Rocuronium can produce optimal intubating conditions without the serious complications that can accompany succinylcholine. The available evidence supports the safety of etomidate and rocuronium in rapid sequence intubation but also suggests that more prospective studies are needed in pediatric patients.

Rocuronium vs. succinylcholine in the emergency department: a critical appraisal

BACKGROUND

Two methods of paralysis are available for rapid sequence intubation (RSI) in the emergency department (ED): depolarizing agents such as succinylcholine, and non-depolarizing drugs such as rocuronium. Rocuronium is a useful alternative when succinylcholine is contraindicated. Contraindications to succinylcholine include allergy, history of malignant hyperthermia, denervation syndromes, and patients who are 24-48 h post burn or crush injury. Non-depolarizing drugs have the advantage of causing less pain due to post-paralysis myalgias.

CLINICAL QUESTION

Can rocuronium replace succinylcholine as the paralytic of choice for RSI in the ED?

EVIDENCE REVIEW

Four relevant studies were selected from an evidence search and a structured review performed.

RESULTS

For the outcomes of clinically acceptable intubation conditions and time to onset, the two agents were not statistically significantly different. Succinylcholine seems to produce conditions that have higher satisfaction scores.

CONCLUSION

Succinylcholine remains the drug of choice for ED RSI unless there is a contraindication to its usage.

Rocuronium versus succinylcholine for rapid sequence induction intubation

BACKGROUND

Patients requiring emergency endotracheal intubation often require a rapid sequence induction (RSI) intubation technique to protect against aspiration or increased intracranial pressure, or to facilitate intubation. Succinylcholine is the most commonly used muscle relaxant because of its fast onset and short duration; unfortunately, it can have serious side effects. Rocuronium has been suggested as an alternative to succinylcholine for intubation. This meta-analysis is an update since our initial Cochrane systematic review in 2003.

OBJECTIVES

To determine if rocuronium creates comparable intubating conditions to succinylcholine during RSI intubation. Comparisons were made based on dose of rocuronium, narcotic use, emergency versus elective intubation, age and induction agent. The primary outcome was excellent intubation conditions. The secondary outcome was acceptable conditions.

SEARCH STRATEGY

In our initial systematic review we searched all databases until March 2000. We have updated that search and searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (The Cochrane Library, 2007 issue 3), MEDLINE (1966 to June Week 3 2007), EMBASE (1988 to 2007 Week 26) for randomized controlled trials or controlled clinical trials relating to the use of rocuronium and succinylcholine. We included foreign language journals and handsearched the references of identified studies for additional citations.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included all trials meeting the inclusion criteria (comparison of rocuronium and succinylcholine, main outcomes of intubation conditions).

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors (JP, JL or VS) independently extracted data and assessed methodological quality for allocation concealment. We combined the outcomes in RevMan using relative risk (RR) with a random-effects model.

MAIN RESULTS

In our initial systematic review we identified 40 studies and included 26. In this update we identified a further 18 studies and included 11. In total, we identified 58 potential studies; 37 were combined for meta-analysis. Overall, succinylcholine was superior to rocuronium, RR 0.86 (95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.80 to 0.92) (n = 2690). In the group that used propofol for induction, the intubation conditions were superior with succinylcholine (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.80 to 0.97) (n = 1183). This is contrary to our previous meta-analysis results where we reported that intubation conditions were superior in the rocuronium group when propofol was used. We found no statistical difference in intubation conditions when succinylcholine was compared to 1.2mg/kg rocuronium; however, succinylcholine was clinically superior as it has a shorter duration of action.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Succinylcholine created superior intubation conditions to rocuronium when comparing both excellent and clinically acceptable intubating conditions.

Impact of the intubation model on the efficacy of rocuronium during rapid sequence intubation: systematic review of randomized trials

BACKGROUND

Propofol-rocuronium is thought to be superior to thiopental-rocuronium for rapid sequence intubation (RSI). The role of the intubation model per se has never been investigated.

METHODS

Randomized comparisons of rocuronium with succinylcholine for true RSI (administration of muscle relaxant immediately after the hypnotic, intubation within 60 s) or modified RSI (delay between administration of the hypnotic and the muscle relaxant, intubation within 60 s) were sought. Good or excellent intubation conditions were expressed as relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

Twelve trials (1,471 patients) used a true RSI. With propofol for induction, RR for good or excellent intubation conditions with conventional rocuronium doses (0.6-0.7 mg/kg) was 0.95 (95%CI, 0.90-1.00), with high doses (0.9-1.2 mg/kg) was 0.96 (0.92-1.01) compared with succinylcholine. With thiopental for induction, RR with conventional rocuronium doses was 0.69 (0.61-0.78) and with high doses was 0.99 (0.95-1.03). Nine trials (340 patients) used a modified RSI. With propofol for induction, RR with conventional rocuronium doses was 0.98 (0.91-1.06); data on high rocuronium doses were lacking. With thiopental for induction, RR with conventional rocuronium doses was 0.97 (0.92-1.02) and with high doses was 1.0. There was no evidence that concomitantly used opioids or the dose of the induction agent had an impact on intubation conditions, independent of the intubation model.

CONCLUSION

The efficacy of rocuronium for RSI is influenced by both, the induction agent and the intubation model. To test the clinical usefulness of alternatives to succinylcholine for RSI, a true RSI model should be used.

Airway Management in Critical Illness

Airway management in the ICU can be complicated due to many factors including the limited physiologic reserve of the patient. As a consequence, the likelihood of difficult mask ventilation and intubation increases. The incidence of failed airways and of cardiac arrest related to airway instrumentation in the ICU is much higher than that of elective intubations performed in the operating room. A thorough working knowledge of the devices available for the management of the difficult airway and recommended rescue strategies is paramount in avoiding bad patient outcomes. In this review, we will provide a conceptual framework for airway assessment, with an emphasis on assessment of the patient with limited cervical spine movement or injury and of morbidly obese patients. Furthermore, we will review the devices that are available for airway management in the ICU, and discuss controversies surrounding interventions like cricoid pressure and the use of muscle relaxants in the critically ill patient. Finally, strategies for the safe extubation of patients with known difficult airways will be provided.

Succinylcholine or rocuronium? A meta-analysis of the effects on intubation conditions

This meta-analysis was undertaken to compare the effects of succinylcholine (SCH) and rocuronium (RCR) on endotracheal intubation (ETI) conditions. Eligible randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were identified via medline and a manual search of references. The frequencies of excellent and unacceptable ETI conditions in subjects receiving SCH 1.0-1.5 mg/kg and RCR 0.6-1.2 mg/kg were determined using standard statistical methods. Inclusion criteria were met by 16 RCTs, representing 1362 subjects. SCH was associated with a 17.7% increase (95% CI = 13-22) in the frequency of excellent ETI conditions and a 5.1% decrease (95% CI = -7.3 to -2.9) in the frequency of unacceptable ETI conditions, when compared with RCR. In the subgroup undergoing true rapid sequence intubation, SCH was associated with a 19.1% increase (95% CI = 13.7-24.5) in the frequency of excellent ETI conditions. SCH appears to be superior to RCR in creating excellent ETI conditions and avoiding unacceptable ETI conditions.

Succinylcholine or rocuronium? A meta-analysis of the effects on intubation conditions

This meta-analysis was undertaken to compare the effects of succinylcholine (SCH) and rocuronium (RCR) on endotracheal intubation (ETI) conditions. Eligible randomised controlled trials (RCTs) were identified via medline and a manual search of references. The frequencies of excellent and unacceptable ETI conditions in subjects receiving SCH 1.0-1.5 mg/kg and RCR 0.6-1.2 mg/kg were determined using standard statistical methods. Inclusion criteria were met by 16 RCTs, representing 1362 subjects. SCH was associated with a 17.7% increase (95% CI = 13-22) in the frequency of excellent ETI conditions and a 5.1% decrease (95% CI = -7.3 to -2.9) in the frequency of unacceptable ETI conditions, when compared with RCR. In the subgroup undergoing true rapid sequence intubation, SCH was associated with a 19.1% increase (95% CI = 13.7-24.5) in the frequency of excellent ETI conditions. SCH appears to be superior to RCR in creating excellent ETI conditions and avoiding unacceptable ETI conditions.

Anesthetic management of the pregnant patient for endovascular coiling of an unruptured intracranial aneurysm

Diagnosis of an intracranial aneurysm during pregnancy is a rare event requiring multidisciplinary care for successful management. The knowledge base for the anesthesiologist involves principles of both obstetric and neuroanesthesia, as well as critical care. This article reports such a case and discusses the relevant pathophysiology, along with details of the perioperative management by the anesthesiology team.

The Dose of Succinylcholine Required for Excellent Endotracheal Intubating Conditions

In this prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we attempted to define the dose of succinylcholine that provides excellent intubation conditions in patients within 60 s during simulated rapid-sequence induction of anesthesia. Anesthesia was induced in 180 patients with 2 microg/kg fentanyl and 2 mg/kg propofol. After loss of consciousness, patients were randomly allocated to receive 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 mg/kg succinylcholine or saline solution (control group). Tracheal intubation was performed 60 s later. A blinded investigator performed all laryngoscopies and graded intubating conditions. Intubating conditions were excellent in 0.0%, 43.3%, 60.0%, 63.3%, 80.0%, and 86.7% of patients after 0.0, 0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg/kg succinylcholine, respectively. The incidence of excellent intubating conditions was significantly more frequent (P < 0.001) in patients receiving succinylcholine than in the controls and in patients who received 2.0 mg/kg succinylcholine (P < 0.05) than in those who received 0.3 mg/kg succinylcholine. The calculated doses of succinylcholine (and their 95% confidence intervals) that are required to achieve excellent intubating conditions in 50% and 80% of patients at 60 s are 0.39 (0.29-0.51) mg/kg and 1.6 (1.2-2.0) mg/kg, respectively. It appears that there are no advantages to using doses of succinylcholine larger than 1.5 mg/kg.

Intubation conditions after rocuronium or succinylcholine for rapid sequence induction with alfentanil and propofol in the emergency patient

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Previous studies mainly conducted on elective patients recommend doses of 0.9-1.2 mg kg[-1] rocuronium to obtain comparable intubation conditions with succinylcholine 1.0 mg kg[-1] after 60 s during a rapid-sequence induction. We decided to compare the overall intubating conditions of standard doses of rocuronium 0.6 mg kg[-1] and succinylcholine 1.0 mg kg[-1] during a strict rapid-sequence induction regimen including propofol and alfentanil.

METHODS

Male and female patients (ASA I-III) older than 17 yr scheduled for emergency abdominal or gynaecological surgery and with increased risk of pulmonary aspiration of gastric content were randomized to a rapid-sequence induction with succinylcholine 1.0 mg kg[-1] or rocuronium 0.6 mg kg[-1]. Patients with a predicted difficult airway were excluded. A senior anaesthesiologist 'blinded' for the randomization performed the intubation 60 s after injection of the neuromuscular blocker. Intubating conditions were evaluated according to an established guideline. Tracheal intubation not completed within 30 s was recorded as failed.

RESULTS

222 patients were randomized. Three patients had their operation cancelled and 10 did not fulfil the inclusion criteria. Clinically acceptable intubation conditions were present in 93.5% and 96.1% of patients in the succinylcholine group (n=107) and the rocuronium group (n=102), respectively (P=0.59).

CONCLUSIONS

During a rapid-sequence induction with alfentanil and propofol, both rocuronium 0.6 mg kg[-1] and succinylcholine 1.0 mg kg[-1] provide clinically acceptable intubation conditions in 60 s in patients scheduled for emergency surgery. Under the conditions of this rapid-sequence induction regimen rocuronium may be a substitute for succinylcholine.

Effect of ephedrine on the onset time of succinylcholine

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of ephedrine administered prior to induction of anaesthesia on the onset time of succinylcholine for endotracheal intubation.

METHODS

Patients were randomly assigned to receive intravenously (i.v.) either 70 microg kg(-1) of ephedrine (Group I; n = 25) or saline (Group II; n = 25) 3 min before induction of anaesthesia. Induction of anaesthesia was provided with propofol 2 mg kg(-1) plus remifentanil 1 microg kg(-1). Onset time and duration of muscle fasciculation and onset time of succinylcholine were recorded. Intubation was attempted after establishment of 100% thumb relaxation and difficulties were recorded. Heart rate, pulse oxymetry (SpO2) and mean arterial pressure (MAP) were also recorded.

RESULTS

The onset time of succinylcholine were significantly (P < 0.001) shorter in Group I (26 +/- 4 s), when compared with Group II (43 +/- 6 s). Patients in Group I were intubated at 49 +/- 7 s compared with 68 +/- 10 s in Group II. The score of intubation was similar in both groups. Duration of muscle fasciculation was longer in Group II. Heart rate and MAP increased significantly (P < 0.05) after ephedrine injection, compared with the baseline value in Group I.

CONCLUSIONS

The onset time of succinylcholine can be shortened with ephedrine pretreatment.