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Graves GM, Tanner RS, Vogel JR, De León KB, Walls AW. The effect of Paenibacillus on IDEXX Enterolert results from freshwater stream environments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:91074-91083. [PMID: 37466837 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28797-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Enterolert, a fluorogenic substrate test, is used as a quantitative method for determining freshwater concentrations of Enterococcus for water quality indicators. However, there is some evidence from recent studies suggesting that Enterolert may not suppress false positives due to pollution sources in waterbodies. In this study, we evaluated this method by analyzing field water and sediment samples from four freshwater streams. We also performed a laboratory microcosm study from two of the stream sediments. The Enterolert method was investigated by phenotypic and genomic analyses for accuracy of isolating and quantifying Enterococcus and/or Streptococcus. Additionally, we tested isolates from Enterolert panels for antibiotic resistance. Results from the field and microcosm studies from initial to final time points indicated that false positives were predominantly Paenibacillus spp. and other non-fecal indicator bacteria. Furthermore, the microcosm study indicated shifts from lactic acid to non-lactic acid bacteria between initial to final time points, but Enterococcus concentrations from Enterolert panels remained stable for the duration of the study for both stream sediments. Antibiotic resistance indicated no distinct pattern of resistance or susceptibility to a suite of antibiotics. However, all isolates tested were resistant to bacitracin and nalidixic acid. In conclusion, we found that Enterolert was not exclusively selective for Enterococcus from freshwater environments and that sediment and polluted waterbodies have the potential to skew the presumed concentrations. More research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness and selectivity of the medium used for the fluorogenic substrate test for Enterococcus enumeration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant M Graves
- Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, The University of Oklahoma, 303 Carson Engineering Center, 202 W. Boyd, Norman, OK, 73019, USA.
| | - Ralph S Tanner
- Microbiology and Plant Biology, The University of Oklahoma, 716 George Lynn Cross Hall, 770 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK, 73019, USA
| | - Jason R Vogel
- Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, The University of Oklahoma, 303 Carson Engineering Center, 202 W. Boyd, Norman, OK, 73019, USA
| | - Kara B De León
- Microbiology and Plant Biology, The University of Oklahoma, 716 George Lynn Cross Hall, 770 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK, 73019, USA
| | - Alex W Walls
- Microbiology and Plant Biology, The University of Oklahoma, 716 George Lynn Cross Hall, 770 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK, 73019, USA
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2
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Pala L, Sirec T, Spitz U. Modified Enzyme Substrates for the Detection of Bacteria: A Review. Molecules 2020; 25:E3690. [PMID: 32823590 PMCID: PMC7465704 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25163690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to detect, identify and quantify bacteria is crucial in clinical diagnostics, environmental testing, food security settings and in microbiology research. Recently, the threat of multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens pushed the global scientific community to develop fast, reliable, specific and affordable methods to detect bacterial species. The use of synthetically modified enzyme substrates is a convenient approach to detect bacteria in a specific, economic and rapid manner. The method is based on the use of specific enzyme substrates for a given bacterial marker enzyme, conjugated to a signalogenic moiety. Following enzymatic reaction, the signalophor is released from the synthetic substrate, generating a specific and measurable signal. Several types of signalophors have been described and are defined by the type of signal they generate, such as chromogenic, fluorogenic, luminogenic, electrogenic and redox. Signalophors are further subdivided into groups based on their solubility in water, which is key in defining their application on solid or liquid media for bacterial culturing. This comprehensive review describes synthetic enzyme substrates and their applications for bacterial detection, showing their mechanism of action and their synthetic routes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Urs Spitz
- Biosynth Carbosynth, Axis House, High Street, Compton, Berkshire RG20 6NL, UK; (L.P.); (T.S.)
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3
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Burton M, Perry JD, Stanforth SP, Turner HJ. The synthesis of novel chromogenic enzyme substrates for detection of bacterial glycosidases and their applications in diagnostic microbiology. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:4841-4849. [PMID: 30170924 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The preparation and evaluation of chromogenic substrates for detecting bacterial glycosidase enzymes is reported. These substrates are monoglycoside derivatives of the metal chelators catechol, 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) and 6,7-dibromo-2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (6,7-dibromo-DHN). When hydrolysed by appropriate bacterial enzymes these substrates produced coloured chelates in the presence of ammonium iron(III) citrate, thus enabling bacterial detection. A β-d-riboside of DHN and a β-d-glucuronide derivative of 6,7-dibromo-DHN were particularly effective for the detection of S. aureus and E. coli respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Burton
- Glycosynth Ltd, 14 Craven Court, Winwick Quay, Warrington, Cheshire WA2 8QU, UK
| | - John D Perry
- Department of Microbiology, Freeman Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne NE7 7DN, UK
| | - Stephen P Stanforth
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Hayley J Turner
- Glycosynth Ltd, 14 Craven Court, Winwick Quay, Warrington, Cheshire WA2 8QU, UK.
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Cellier M, James AL, Orenga S, Perry JD, Rasul AK, Stanforth SP. Detection of l-alanylaminopeptidase activity in microorganisms using chromogenic self-immolative enzyme substrates. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2017; 27:2102-2106. [PMID: 28389152 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2017.03.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Three potential chromogenic enzymatic probes, each possessing a self-immolative spacer unit, were synthesised for the purpose of detecting l-alanylaminopeptidase activity in microorganisms. An Alizarin-based probe was the most effective, allowing several species to generate strongly coloured colonies in the presence of metal ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Cellier
- Research & Development Microbiology, bioMérieux SA, 3 route de Port Michaud, 38 390 La-Balme-les-Grottes, France
| | - Arthur L James
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Sylvain Orenga
- Research & Development Microbiology, bioMérieux SA, 3 route de Port Michaud, 38 390 La-Balme-les-Grottes, France
| | - John D Perry
- Department of Microbiology, Freeman Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne NE7 7DN, UK
| | - Ari K Rasul
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK
| | - Stephen P Stanforth
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK.
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5
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Tierney D, Copsey SD, Morris T, Perry JD. A new chromogenic medium for isolation of Bacteroides fragilis suitable for screening for strains with antimicrobial resistance. Anaerobe 2016; 39:168-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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6
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Clostridium difficile Ribotype 023 Lacks the Ability To Hydrolyze Esculin, Leading to False-Negative Results on Chromogenic Agar. J Clin Microbiol 2016; 54:1404-5. [PMID: 26962090 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00234-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Yu JX, Gulaka PK, Liu L, Kodibagkar VD, Mason RP. Novel Fe 3+-Based 1H MRI β-Galactosidase Reporter Molecules**. Chempluschem 2012; 77:370-378. [PMID: 23807909 PMCID: PMC3691858 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201100072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing interest in the development of reporter agents to reveal enzyme activity in vivo using small animal imaging. We have previously demonstrated the feasibility of detecting lacZ gene activity using the commercially available 3,4-cyclohexenoesculetin-β-D-galactopyranoside (S-Gal™) as a 1H MRI reporter. Specifically, β-galactosidase (β-gal) releases the aglycone, which forms an MR contrast-inducing paramagnetic precipitate in the presence of Fe3+. Contrast was primarily T2-weighted signal loss, but T1 effects were also observed. Since T1-contrast generally provides signal enhancement as opposed to loss, it appeared attractive to explore whether analogues could be generated with enhanced characteristics. We now report the design and successful synthesis of novel analogues together with characterization of 1H MRI contrast based on both T1 and T2 response to β-gal activity in vitro for the lead agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Xin Yu
- Department of Radiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, USA
| | - Praveen K. Gulaka
- Joint Program in Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Arlington and The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, USA
| | - Li Liu
- Department of Radiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, USA
| | - Vikram D. Kodibagkar
- Department of Radiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, USA
| | - Ralph P. Mason
- Department of Radiology, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, Texas 75390-9058, USA
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Abstract
Light sensing proteins can be used to control living cells with exquisite precision. We have recently constructed a set of bacterial light sensors and used them to pattern gene expression across lawns of Escherichia coli with images of green and red light. The sensors can be expressed in a single cell and controlled independently by applying different light wavelengths. Both sensors also demonstrate continuous input-output behavior, where the magnitude of gene expression is proportional to the intensity of light applied. This combination of features allows complex patterns of gene expression to be programmed across an otherwise homogeneous cell population. The red light sensor has also been connected to a cell-cell communication system and several genetic logic circuits in order to program the bacterial lawn to behave as a distributed computer that performs the image-processing task of edge detection. Here, we will describe protocols for working with these systems in the laboratory.
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Orenga S, James AL, Manafi M, Perry JD, Pincus DH. Enzymatic substrates in microbiology. J Microbiol Methods 2009; 79:139-55. [PMID: 19679151 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2009.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Revised: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Enzymatic substrates are powerful tools in biochemistry. They are widely used in microbiology to study metabolic pathways, to monitor metabolism and to detect, enumerate and identify microorganisms. Synthetic enzymatic substrates have been customized for various microbial assays, to detect an expanding range of both new enzymatic activities and target microorganisms. Recent developments in synthetic enzymatic substrates with new spectral, chemical and biochemical properties allow improved detection, enumeration and identification of food-borne microorganisms, clinical pathogens and multi-resistant bacteria in various sample types. In the past 20 years, the range of synthetic enzymatic substrates used in microbiology has been markedly extended supporting the development of new multi-test systems (e.g., Microscan, Vitek 2, Phoenix) and chromogenic culture media. The use of such substrates enables an improvement in time to detection and specificity over conventional tests that employ natural substrates. In the era of intense developments in molecular biology, phenotypic tests involving enzymatic substrates remain useful to analyse both simple and complex samples. Such tests are applicable to diagnostic and research laboratories all over the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Orenga
- Research & Development Microbiology, bioMérieux, 3 route de Port Michaud, La Balme-les-Grottes, France.
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10
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Bull JA, Luján C, Hutchings MG, Quayle P. Application of the BHQ benzannulation reaction to the synthesis of benzo-fused coumarins. Tetrahedron Lett 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2009.03.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Abstract
Since 1990, a wide range of chromogenic culture media has been made commercially available providing useful tools for diagnostic clinical microbiology. By the inclusion of chromogenic enzyme substrates targeting microbial enzymes, such media are able to target pathogens with high specificity. Examples of target pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Salmonella spp. and Candida spp. The inclusion of multiple chromogenic substrates into culture media facilitates the differentiation of polymicrobial cultures, thus allowing for the development of improved media for diagnosis of urinary tract infections and media for the enhanced discrimination of yeasts. The purpose of this review is to provide some insight into how such media work and appraise their utility in routine clinical diagnostics, in comparison with conventional media.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Perry
- Microbiology Department, Freeman Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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Perry JD, Morris KA, James AL, Oliver M, Gould FK. Evaluation of novel chromogenic substrates for the detection of bacterial beta-glucosidase. J Appl Microbiol 2007; 102:410-5. [PMID: 17241346 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.03096.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To evaluate three previously unreported substrates for the detection of beta-glucosidase activity in clinically relevant bacteria and to compare their performance with a range of known substrates in an agar medium. METHODS AND RESULTS The performance of 11 chromogenic beta-glucosidase substrates was compared using 109 Enterobacteriaceae strains, 40 enterococci and 20 strains of Listeria spp. Three previously unreported beta-glucosides were tested including derivatives of alizarin, 3',4'-dihydroxyflavone and 3-hydroxyflavone. These were compared with esculin and beta-glucoside derivatives of 3,4-cyclohexenoesculetin, 8-hydroxyquinoline and five indoxylics. All substrates yielded coloured precipitates upon hydrolysis in agar. Alizarin-beta-D-glucoside was the most sensitive substrate tested and detected beta-glucosidase activity in 72% of Enterobacteriaceae strains and all enterococci and Listeria spp. The two flavone derivatives showed poor sensitivity with Gram-negative bacteria but excellent sensitivity with enterococci and Listeria spp. CONCLUSIONS Alizarin-beta-d-glucoside is a highly sensitive substrate for detection of bacterial beta-glucosidase and compares favourably with existing substrates. beta-glucosides of 3',4'-dihydroxyflavone and 3-hydroxyflavone are effective substrates for the detection of beta-glucosidase in enterococci and Listeria spp. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The data presented allow for informed decisions to be made regarding the optimal choice of beta-glucosidase substrate for detection of pathogenic and/or indicator bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Perry
- Department of Microbiology, Freeman Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
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13
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Saqib AAN, Whitney PJ. Esculin gel diffusion assay (EGDA): A simple and sensitive method for screening β-glucosidases. Enzyme Microb Technol 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2005.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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14
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Smith PA, Mellors D, Holroyd A, Gray C. A new chromogenic medium for the isolation of Listeria spp. Lett Appl Microbiol 2001; 32:78-82. [PMID: 11169047 DOI: 10.1046/j.1472-765x.2001.00860.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A new medium is described for the isolation of Listeria spp. from foods and environmental samples. It is based on a modified Oxford medium in which 3,4-cyclohexenoesculetin-beta-D-glucoside replaces aesculin. Positive colonies are intensely black with the advantage that the pigment does not diffuse into the medium. The medium, when tested alongside the US Department of Agriculture (spiked samples) and Food and Drug Administration (naturally contaminated samples) isolation procedures, performed significantly better than the current formulations (34% more confirmed positives from naturally contaminated samples) with a reduction of 1 d in the assay time for most samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Smith
- IDG (UK) Limited, Bury, Lancashire, UK.
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15
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James AL, Perry JD, Chilvers K, Robson IS, Armstrong L, Orr KE. Alizarin-beta-D-galactoside: a new substrate for the detection of bacterial beta-galactosidase. Lett Appl Microbiol 2000; 30:336-40. [PMID: 10792658 DOI: 10.1046/j.1472-765x.2000.00669.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
We describe the synthesis of a new substrate for the detection of bacterial beta-galactosidase. This substrate, alizarin-beta-D-galactoside, is readily hydrolysed to release alizarin which complexes with various metal ions to form brightly coloured chelates. A total of 367 strains of Gram-negative bacteria were examined for their ability to hydrolyse three chromogenic substrates: alizarin-beta-D-galactoside (Aliz-gal), cyclohexenoesculetin-beta-D-galactoside (CHE-gal) and 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-beta-D-galactoside (X-gal). A total of 182 strains (49.6%) were found to hydrolyse at least one of the three substrates. All of these 182 strains (100%) hydrolysed Aliz-gal whereas only 170 (93.4%) and 173 (95.1%) hydrolysed CHE-gal and X-gal, respectively. We conclude that alizarin-beta-D-galactoside is a highly sensitive substrate for the demonstration of beta-galactosidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L James
- Department of Chemical & Life Sciences, University of Northumbria, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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