Endovascular management of chronic upper extremity deep vein thrombosis and superior vena cava syndrome

Prevalence and outcomes of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia in hospitalized patients with venous thromboembolic disease: Insight from national inpatient sample

OBJECTIVE

The mainstay of therapy for patients with venous thromboembolic disease (VTE) is anticoagulation. In the inpatient setting, majority of these patients are treated with heparin or low molecular weight heparin. The prevalence and outcomes of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) in hospitalized patients with venous thromboembolic disease (VTE) is unknown.

METHODS

This nationwide study identified patients with VTE from the National Inpatient Sample database between January 2009 and December 2013. Among these patients, we compared in-hospital outcomes of patients with and without HIT using a propensity score-matching algorithm. The primary outcome was in-hospital mortality. Secondary outcomes included rates of blood transfusions, intracranial hemorrhage, gastrointestinal bleed, length of hospital stay, and total hospital charges.

RESULTS

Among 791,932 hospitalized patients with VTE, 4948 patients (0.6%) were noted to have HIT (mean age, 62.9 ±16.2 years; 50.1% female). Propensity-matched comparison showed higher rates of in-hospital mortality (11.01% vs 8.97%; P < .001) and blood transfusions (27.20% vs 20.23%; P < .001) in patients with HIT compared with those without HIT. No significant differences were noted in intracranial hemorrhage rates (0.71% vs 0.51%; P > .05), gastrointestinal bleed (2.00% vs 2.22%; P > .05), length of hospital stay (median, 6.0 days; interquartile range [IQR], 3.0-11.0 vs median, 6.0 days; IQR, 3.0-10.0 days; P > .05), and total hospital charges (median, $36,325; IQR, $17,798-$80,907 vs median, $34,808; IQR, $17,654-$75,624; P > .05).

CONCLUSIONS

This nationwide observational study showed that 0.6% of hospitalized patients with VTE in the United States have HIT. The presence of HIT was associated with higher in-hospital mortality and blood transfusion rates compared with those without HIT.

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome: An Umbrella Review

Superior vena cava syndrome (SVCS) is a medical emergency that encompasses an array of signs and symptoms due to obstruction of blood flow through the superior vena cava (SVC). It poses a significant healthcare burden due to its associated morbidity and mortality. Its impact on the healthcare system continues to grow due to the increasing incidence of the condition. This incidence trend has been attributed to the growing use of catheters, pacemakers, and defibrillators, although it is a rare complication of these devices. The most common cause of SVCS remains malignancies accounting for up to 60% of the cases. Understanding the pathophysiology of SVCS requires understanding the anatomy, the SVC drains blood from the right and left brachiocephalic veins, which drain the head and the upper extremities accounting for about one-third of the venous blood to the heart. The most common presenting symptoms of SVCS are swelling of the face and hand, chest pain, respiratory symptoms (dyspnea, stridor, cough, hoarseness, and dysphagia), and neurologic manifestations (headaches, confusion, or visual/auditory disturbances). Symptoms generally worsen in a supine position. Diagnosis typically requires imaging, and SVCS can be graded based on classification schemas depending on the severity of symptoms and the location, understanding, and degree of obstruction. Over the past decades, the management modalities of SVCS have evolved to meet the increasing burden of the condition. Here, we present an umbrella review providing an overall assessment of the available information on SVCS, including the various management options, their indications, and a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of these modalities.

Superior Vena Cava Syndrome

Superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome comprises a constellation of clinical signs and symptoms caused by obstruction of blood flow through the SVC. The management of patients with life-threatening SVC syndrome is evolving from radiation therapy to endovascular therapy as the first-line treatment. There is a paucity of data and societal guidelines with regard to the management of SVC syndrome. This paper aims to update the practicing interventionalists with the contemporary and the evolving therapeutic approach to SVC syndrome. In addition, the review will focus on endovascular techniques, including catheter-directed thrombolysis, angioplasty, and stenting, and their associated complications.

Invited Review: Optimal Management of Upper Extremity DVT: Is Venous Thoracic Outlet Syndrome Underrecognized?

BACKGROUND

UEDVT accounts for approximately 10% of all cases of deep vein thrombosis. In the most widely referenced general review of deep vein thrombosis (DVT the American Academy of Chest Physicians essentially recommend that upper extremity DVT (UEDVT) essentially be treated identically to that of lower extremity DVT, with anticoagulation being the default therapy. Unfortunately, the medical literature does not well differentiate between DVT in the arm and the leg, and does not emphasize the effects of the costoclavicular junction (CCJ) and the lack of effect of gravity, to the point where UEDVT due to extrinsic bony compression at the CCJ is classified as "primary."

METHODS

Comprehensive literature review, beginning with both Medline and Google Scholar searches in addition to collected references, then following relevant citations within the initial manuscripts studied. Both surgical and medical journals were explored RESULTS: It is proposed that effort thrombosis be classified as a secondary cause of UEDVT, limiting the definition of primary to that which is truly idiopathic. Other causes of secondary UEDVT include catheter- and pacemaker-related thrombosis (the most common cause, but often asymptomatic), thrombosis related to malignancy and hypercoagulable conditions, and the rare case of thrombosis due to compression of the vein by a focal malignancy or other space-occupying lesion. In true primary UEDVT and in those secondary cases where no mechanical cause is present or can be corrected, anticoagulation remains the treatment of choice, usually for three months or the duration of a needed catheter. However, evidence suggests that many cases of effort thrombosis are likely missed by a too-narrow adherence to this protocol.

CONCLUSIONS

Because proper treatment of effort thrombosis drops the long-term symptomatic status rate from 50% to almost zero and these are healthy patients with a long lifespan ahead, it is proposed that a more aggressive attitude toward thrombolysis be followed in any patient who has a reasonable degree of suspicion for venous thoracic outlet syndrome.

Open repair of Superior Vena Cava Syndrome with High Intracranial Pressures using an 'Y' graft

We present the case of a young patient with benign superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome resulting from a complex autoimmune disease. Initial attempts of endovascular repair were unsuccessful. Subsequently, an open bypass of both innominate veins was performed with a cryopreserved femoral arterial 'Y' graft. This was a challenging case due to the combination of complex comorbidities and severe tissue fragility which made the intervention technically difficult. The postoperative recovery was uncomplicated and at 6 weeks follow-up, the patient reported a complete remission of her preoperative symptoms.

Iatrogenic superior vena cava syndrome with concomitant deep vein thrombosis of azygos and hemiazygos veins

Iatrogenic superior vena cava syndrome (SVCs) represents an emergent diagnostic entity and its correlation with deep vein thrombosis is extremely rare. Recently, the increased use of indwelling lines, pacemakers and intracardiac devices has led to more cases of SVC syndrome also associated with a higher frequency of DVT. We report an unusual complication in a 74-year-old female, who has been undergoing hemodialysis via CVC for 14 years, who referred at our Emergency Department complaining of shortness of breath, headache, face and neck swelling. She underwent chest Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA), that showed a thrombus extending from the superior vena cava to the azygos and hemiazygos veins. Acute SVCs should be suspected in emergency settings in symptomatic patients with indwelling central lines, catheters and pacemakers. CTA represents an accurate and quick imaging modality for the diagnosis and the assessment of the extension of the thrombus.

[Superior vena cava thrombosis or stricture secondary to implanted central venous access: Six cases of endovascular and direct surgical treatment in cancer patients]

Superior vena cava (SVC) stenosis or thrombosis is a well-known complication of central venous catheterization for endocavitary treatments, hemodialysis, or chemotherapy. In cancer patients, these SVC lesions are often symptomatic due to intimal damage and chemotherapy toxicity. We report our experience with six patients treated between 2007 and 2012 via an endovascular approach (n=5) or a direct surgical approach (n=1). All patients had SVC syndrome with facial edema, headache and upper limb edema. In three cases, the catheter was in place when the clinical symptoms occurred. Duplex Doppler and computed tomography (CT)-angiography identified the following lesions: isolated SVC stenosis (n=2); SVC stenosis with right Pirogoff confluence stenosis (n=1); SVC stenosis associated with left innominate vein thrombosis and right Pirogoff confluence stenosis (n=1); SVC thrombosis affecting azygos flow (n=2). In one patient, the thrombus extended into the right atrium. Five patients underwent endovascular repair via a right jugular approach (n=2) or a double jugular approach (n=3). Treatment involved: SVC angioplasty with stent (n=2); right Pirogoff angioplasty and SVC stent (n=1); kissing angioplasty of both innominate trunks with a SVC stent (n=1); and SVC angioplasty without stent because of an incomplete result with a residual lumen less than 8mm (n=1). One patient had a complete SVC occlusion with extension of thrombus into the right atrium. She was treated via a median sternotomy for open surgical control of both innominate trunks and lateral clamping of the right atrium. A long cavotomy prolonged on the right atrium allowed thrombo-intimectomy and pericardial patch angioplasty. Postoperative follow-up was uneventful in five cases. However, postoperative hemorrhage required pericardial drainage in one patient. The CT scan showed a good morphological aspect in five patients and an incomplete result in one case. Patients have been followed up annually with a duplex scan from two to six years. One patient had a restenosis at 7 months treated by a new angioplasty via a femoral approach. A new catheter was positioned via a cervical approach. Two patients died of metastatic diffusion at 8 and 32 months. The other four patients have remained asymptomatic, with a satisfactory duplex scan. In conclusion, VCS lesions after implanted central access for chemotherapy can often be treated endovascularly. Conventional surgery still has indications when lesions extend into the right atrium.

Palliative treatment of superior vena cava syndrome with nitinol stents

This study aims to retrospectively evaluate the outcomes following nitinol stent placement for malignant superior vena cava syndrome. A total of 25 patients with thoracic malignancies were treated with self-expanding nitinol stents for superior vena cava syndrome (E*Luminexx [Bard GmbH/Angiomed, Karlsruhe, Germany], Sinus-XL [OptiMed Medizinische Instrumente GmbH, Ettlingen, Germany], and Zilver Vena [Cook Medical Inc., Bloomington, IN]). It was seen that the procedural success rate was 76% with all stents deployed as intended and no procedure-related complications but in five patients with 50% residual stenosis and one patient with stent occlusion within 48 hours after stent deployment. Stent occlusion occurred in further two patients during follow-up: one patient developed infection, thrombosis, and occlusion in the stent seen at 2-month follow-up, and one patient had stent occlusion at 4-month follow-up. The clinical success rate was 96%. Stent compression leading to a greater than 50% reduction in stent diameter was observed in three patients at follow-up. Overall 22 patients died at a mean follow-up of 3.5 months for reasons related to their underlying malignancy. It was concluded that the stent treatment for superior vena cava syndrome is a safe treatment with good clinical effect in patients with superior vena cava syndrome in the terminal phase of malignant disease. In this small patient population, no trends were observed which would suggest that outcomes vary by stent type, though additional, large-scale studies are needed.

Palliative procedures in lung cancer

Palliative care aims to optimize comfort and function when cure is not possible. Image-guided interventions for palliative treatment of lung cancer is aimed at local control of advanced disease in the affected lung, adjacent mediastinal structures, or distant metastatic sites. These procedures include endovascular therapy for superior vena cava syndrome, bronchial artery embolization for hemoptysis associated with lung cancer, and ablation of osseous metastasis. Pathophysiology, clinical presentation, indications of these palliative treatments, procedural techniques, complications, and possible future interventions are discussed in this article.

Thrombogenic catheter-associated superior vena cava syndrome

Superior vena cava syndrome has historically been associated with malignancy. With the increasing use of indwelling central lines, catheters, and pacemakers in the past decade, there have been an increasing number of cases associated with thrombosis rather than by direct external compression. Patients presenting to the ED with an acute process of SVC syndrome need to be assessed in a timely fashion. Computed tomography angiography (CTA) or magnetic resonance angiogram (MRA) are superb modalities for diagnosis and can quickly be used in the ED. Treatment is oriented towards the underlying cause of the syndrome. In cases of thrombogenic catheter-associated SVC syndrome, anticoagulation is the mainstay of treatment. We present a case report and discussion of a 56-year-old male with a history of metastatic colorectal cancer and an indwelling central venous port with acute signs and symptoms of superior vena cava syndrome.

Palliative care in patients with lung cancer

Lung cancer accounts for 12% of all cancers and has the highest annual rate of mortality in men and women. The overall aim is cure or prolongation of life without evidence of disease. Almost 60% of patients at the moment of diagnosis are not eligible for radical treatment. Therefore soothing and supportive treatment is the only treatment of choice. Patients with lung cancer who have symptoms of dyspnea, chronic cough, severe pain, exhaustion and cachexia syndrome, fear and depression and significantly reduced physical and intellectual activities are qualified for inpatient or home palliative care. Knowledge about various methods used in palliative treatment allows one to alleviate symptoms that occur in an advanced stage of disease with an expected short survival period. Methods of oncological treatment that are often used in patients with advanced lung cancer include radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Drawing attention to the earlier implementation of palliative care is an objective of research carried out during recent years. Advances in surgical and conservative treatment of these patients have contributed to better outcomes and longer survival time.

Metastatic mediastinal carcinoid presenting as superior mediastinal syndrome and treated with peptide receptor radionuclide therapy

A 43-year-old man with known superior mediastinal syndrome due to (99m)Tc HYNIC DOTA SPECT/CT and (18)F-FDG PET tracer avid inoperable metastatic carcinoid received peptide receptor based radionuclide therapy (PRRT) with (177)Lu-DOTATATE. Repeat evaluation at 3 months post-therapy demonstrated stable disease with alleviation of patient's symptoms and remarkable improvement in the quality of life. PRRT with (177)Lu-DOTATATE may be an option for inoperable mediastinal carcinoids with superior mediastinal syndrome.

Catheter-induced thrombosis of the superior vena cava

There has been an increase in the use of central venous catheters (CVCs) in clinical practice. One of the most dangerous complications associated with their use is symptomatic or asymptomatic thrombosis (T), sometimes associated with superior vena cava (SVC) syndrome, resulting from impaired venous drainage. The right heart clots can induce an increased risk of mortality due the potential pulmonary embolism (PE). We report a case of asymptomatic 83-year-old woman in whom the thrombosis was detected after an echocardiogram. Echocardiography demonstrated a cardiac mass, and the T was confirmed by (magnetic resonance imaging) MRI. The clinical scenario, a high index of suspicion and routine use of echocardiogram in patients with CVC, can lead to a correct diagnosis, preventing dangerous complications.