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Gatterer H, Dünnwald T, Turner R, Csapo R, Schobersberger W, Burtscher M, Faulhaber M, Kennedy MD. Practicing Sport in Cold Environments: Practical Recommendations to Improve Sport Performance and Reduce Negative Health Outcomes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:9700. [PMID: 34574624 PMCID: PMC8471173 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18189700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Although not a barrier to perform sport, cold weather environments (low ambient temperature, high wind speeds, and increased precipitation, i.e., rain/water/snow) may influence sport performance. Despite the obvious requirement for practical recommendations and guidelines to better facilitate training and competition in such cold environments, the current scientific evidence-base is lacking. Nonetheless, this review summarizes the current available knowledge specifically related to the physiological impact of cold exposure, in an attempt to provide practitioners and coaches alike with practical recommendations to minimize any potential negative performance effects, mitigate health issues, and best optimize athlete preparation across various sporting disciplines. Herein, the review is split into sections which explore some of the key physiological effects of cold exposure on performance (i.e., endurance exercise capacity and explosive athletic power), potential health issues (short-term and long-term), and what is currently known with regard to best preparation or mitigation strategies considered to negate the potential negative effects of cold on performance. Specific focus is given to "winter" sports that are usually completed in cold environments and practical recommendations for physical preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Gatterer
- Institute of Mountain Emergency Medicine, Eurac Research, 39100 Bolzano, Italy;
| | - Tobias Dünnwald
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism (ISAG), UMIT, Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, 6060 Hall i.T., Tirol, Austria and Tirol-Kliniken GmbH, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (T.D.); (W.S.)
| | - Rachel Turner
- Institute of Mountain Emergency Medicine, Eurac Research, 39100 Bolzano, Italy;
| | - Robert Csapo
- Centre for Sport Science and University Sports, University of Vienna, 1010 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Wolfgang Schobersberger
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism (ISAG), UMIT, Private University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, 6060 Hall i.T., Tirol, Austria and Tirol-Kliniken GmbH, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria; (T.D.); (W.S.)
- Austrian Society for Alpine and High-Altitude Medicine, 6414 Mieming, Austria; (M.B.); (M.F.)
| | - Martin Burtscher
- Austrian Society for Alpine and High-Altitude Medicine, 6414 Mieming, Austria; (M.B.); (M.F.)
- Department of Sport Science, University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Martin Faulhaber
- Austrian Society for Alpine and High-Altitude Medicine, 6414 Mieming, Austria; (M.B.); (M.F.)
- Department of Sport Science, University Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Michael D. Kennedy
- Athlete Health Lab, Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport, and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
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Ito R, Yamashita N, Ishihara K, Matsumoto T. Rain exacerbates cold and metabolic strain during high-intensity running. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 59:1601-1607. [PMID: 31694361 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.19.09865-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Outdoor exercise often proceeds in rainy conditions. However, there are very few studies reporting the physiological effects of cold with rain or wet-cold exposure on humans during exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of rain on physiological responses during running exercise at 80% V̇Omax in the cold. METHODS Twelve healthy men (age: 21.7±3.3 years; height: 1.760±0.085 m; body weight: 68.8±7.1 kg; maximal oxygen consumption: 67.3±5.00 mL/kg/min) exercised on a treadmill at 80% V̇Omax intensity for 60 minutes with rain (RAIN) or not (CON) at 5 °C. RESULTS Rectal temperature was significantly lower in RAIN than in CON at 10, 40, 50, and 60 minutes (P<0.05). Mean weighted skin temperature was significantly lower in RAIN than in CON during exercise (P<0.05). Oxygen consumption and rating of perceived exertion were significantly higher in RAIN than in CON at 50 and 60 minutes (P<0.05). Plasma lactate was significantly higher in RAIN than in CON at 10 minutes and from 40 to 60 minutes (P<0.05). Plasma norepinephrine levels were significantly higher in RAIN than in CON at 10 minutes and from 40 to 60 minutes (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that rain increased heat loss during the early phase of exercise in the cold, then heat production increased and transiently suppressed cold stress. However, with time, body heat loss intensified due to increasing wet area, and then energy expenditure and plasma lactate increased due to cold stress. Therefore, rain may decrease exercise performance and affect sport safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ito
- School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Daido University, Nagoya, Japan -
| | - Naoyuki Yamashita
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kohei Ishihara
- Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan
| | - Takaaki Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan
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MacRae BA, Annaheim S, Spengler CM, Rossi RM. Skin Temperature Measurement Using Contact Thermometry: A Systematic Review of Setup Variables and Their Effects on Measured Values. Front Physiol 2018. [PMID: 29441024 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00029, 10.3389/fpls.2018.00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Skin temperature (Tskin) is commonly measured using Tskin sensors affixed directly to the skin surface, although the influence of setup variables on the measured outcome requires clarification. Objectives: The two distinct objectives of this systematic review were (1) to examine measurements from contact Tskin sensors considering equilibrium temperature and temperature disturbance, sensor attachments, pressure, environmental temperature, and sensor type, and (2) to characterise the contact Tskin sensors used, conditions of use, and subsequent reporting in studies investigating sports, exercise, and other physical activity. Data sources and study selection: For the measurement comparison objective, Ovid Medline and Scopus were used (1960 to July 2016) and studies comparing contact Tskin sensor measurements in vivo or using appropriate physical models were included. For the survey of use, Ovid Medline was used (2011 to July 2016) and studies using contact temperature sensors for the measurement of human Tskinin vivo during sport, exercise, and other physical activity were included. Study appraisal and synthesis methods: For measurement comparisons, assessments of risk of bias were made according to an adapted version of the Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool. Comparisons of temperature measurements were expressed, where possible, as mean difference and 95% limits of agreement (LoA). Meta-analyses were not performed due to the lack of a common reference condition. For the survey of use, extracted information was summarised in text and tabular form. Results: For measurement comparisons, 21 studies were included. Results from these studies indicated minor (<0.5°C) to practically meaningful (>0.5°C) measurement bias within the subgroups of attachment type, applied pressure, environmental conditions, and sensor type. The 95% LoA were often within 1.0°C for in vivo studies and 0.5°C for physical models. For the survey of use, 172 studies were included. Details about Tskin sensor setup were often poorly reported and, from those reporting setup information, it was evident that setups widely varied in terms of type of sensors, attachments, and locations used. Conclusions: Setup variables and conditions of use can influence the measured temperature from contact Tskin sensors and thus key setup variables need to be appropriately considered and consistently reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braid A MacRae
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland.,Exercise Physiology Lab, Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon Annaheim
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Christina M Spengler
- Exercise Physiology Lab, Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - René M Rossi
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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MacRae BA, Annaheim S, Spengler CM, Rossi RM. Skin Temperature Measurement Using Contact Thermometry: A Systematic Review of Setup Variables and Their Effects on Measured Values. Front Physiol 2018; 9:29. [PMID: 29441024 PMCID: PMC5797625 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Skin temperature (Tskin) is commonly measured using Tskin sensors affixed directly to the skin surface, although the influence of setup variables on the measured outcome requires clarification. Objectives: The two distinct objectives of this systematic review were (1) to examine measurements from contact Tskin sensors considering equilibrium temperature and temperature disturbance, sensor attachments, pressure, environmental temperature, and sensor type, and (2) to characterise the contact Tskin sensors used, conditions of use, and subsequent reporting in studies investigating sports, exercise, and other physical activity. Data sources and study selection: For the measurement comparison objective, Ovid Medline and Scopus were used (1960 to July 2016) and studies comparing contact Tskin sensor measurements in vivo or using appropriate physical models were included. For the survey of use, Ovid Medline was used (2011 to July 2016) and studies using contact temperature sensors for the measurement of human Tskinin vivo during sport, exercise, and other physical activity were included. Study appraisal and synthesis methods: For measurement comparisons, assessments of risk of bias were made according to an adapted version of the Cochrane Collaboration's risk of bias tool. Comparisons of temperature measurements were expressed, where possible, as mean difference and 95% limits of agreement (LoA). Meta-analyses were not performed due to the lack of a common reference condition. For the survey of use, extracted information was summarised in text and tabular form. Results: For measurement comparisons, 21 studies were included. Results from these studies indicated minor (<0.5°C) to practically meaningful (>0.5°C) measurement bias within the subgroups of attachment type, applied pressure, environmental conditions, and sensor type. The 95% LoA were often within 1.0°C for in vivo studies and 0.5°C for physical models. For the survey of use, 172 studies were included. Details about Tskin sensor setup were often poorly reported and, from those reporting setup information, it was evident that setups widely varied in terms of type of sensors, attachments, and locations used. Conclusions: Setup variables and conditions of use can influence the measured temperature from contact Tskin sensors and thus key setup variables need to be appropriately considered and consistently reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braid A. MacRae
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Exercise Physiology Lab, Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Simon Annaheim
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Christina M. Spengler
- Exercise Physiology Lab, Institute of Human Movement Sciences and Sport, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - René M. Rossi
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Biomimetic Membranes and Textiles, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Hinde K, Lloyd R, Low C, Cooke C. The effect of temperature, gradient, and load carriage on oxygen consumption, posture, and gait characteristics. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:417-430. [PMID: 28154976 PMCID: PMC5346415 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-016-3531-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the effect of load carriage in a range of temperatures to establish the interaction between cold exposure, the magnitude of change from unloaded to loaded walking and gradient. METHODS Eleven participants (19-27 years) provided written informed consent before performing six randomly ordered walking trials in six temperatures (20, 10, 5, 0, -5, and -10 °C). Trials involved two unloaded walking bouts before and after loaded walking (18.2 kg) at 4 km · h-1, on 0 and 10% gradients in 4 min bouts. RESULTS The change in absolute oxygen consumption (V̇O2) from the first unloaded bout to loaded walking was similar across all six temperatures. When repeating the second unloaded bout, V̇O2 at both -5 and -10 °C was greater compared to the first. At -10 °C, V̇O2 was increased from 1.60 ± 0.30 to 1.89 ± 0.51 L · min-1. Regardless of temperature, gradient had a greater effect on V̇O2 and heart rate (HR) than backpack load. HR was unaffected by temperature. Stride length (SL) decreased with decreasing temperature, but trunk forward lean was greater during cold exposure. CONCLUSION Decreased ambient temperature did not influence the magnitude of change in V̇O2 from unloaded to loaded walking. However, in cold temperatures, V̇O2 was significantly higher than in warm conditions. The increased V̇O2 in colder temperatures at the same exercise intensity is predicted to ultimately lead to earlier onset of fatigue and cessation of exercise. These results highlight the need to consider both appropriate clothing and fitness during cold exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Hinde
- Leeds Beckett University, Headingley Campus, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS6 3QS, UK.
| | - Ray Lloyd
- Leeds Trinity University, Brownberrie Lane, Horsforth, Leeds, LS18 5HD, UK
| | - Chris Low
- Leeds Beckett University, Headingley Campus, Leeds, West Yorkshire, LS6 3QS, UK
| | - Carlton Cooke
- Leeds Trinity University, Brownberrie Lane, Horsforth, Leeds, LS18 5HD, UK
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Castellani JW, Tipton MJ. Cold Stress Effects on Exposure Tolerance and Exercise Performance. Compr Physiol 2015; 6:443-69. [PMID: 26756639 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c140081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cold weather can have deleterious effects on health, tolerance, and performance. This paper will review the physiological responses and external factors that impact cold tolerance and physical performance. Tolerance is defined as the ability to withstand cold stress with minimal changes in physiological strain. Physiological and pathophysiological responses to short-term (cold shock) and long-term cold water and air exposure are presented. Factors (habituation, anthropometry, sex, race, and fitness) that influence cold tolerance are also reviewed. The impact of cold exposure on physical performance, especially aerobic performance, has not been thoroughly studied. The few studies that have been done suggest that aerobic performance is degraded in cold environments. Potential physiological mechanisms (decreases in deep body and muscle temperature, cardiovascular, and metabolism) are discussed. Likewise, strength and power are also degraded during cold exposure, primarily through a decline in muscle temperature. The review also discusses the concept of thermoregulatory fatigue, a reduction in the thermal effector responses of shivering and vasoconstriction, as a result of multistressor factors, including exhaustive exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Castellani
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael J Tipton
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, United Kingdom
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Hinde K, Cooke C, Lloyd R. Effects of increasing cold exposure on the oxygen uptake of walking unloaded and loaded. EXTREME PHYSIOLOGY & MEDICINE 2015. [PMCID: PMC4580879 DOI: 10.1186/2046-7648-4-s1-a56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Ito R, Yamashita N, Suzuki E, Matsumoto T. Rain influences the physiological and metabolic responses to exercise in hot conditions. J Sports Sci 2015; 33:892-8. [PMID: 25555077 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2014.977938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Outdoor exercise often proceeds in rainy conditions. However, the cooling effects of rain on human physiological responses have not been systematically studied in hot conditions. The present study determined physiological and metabolic responses using a climatic chamber that can precisely simulate hot, rainy conditions. Eleven healthy men ran on a treadmill at an intensity of 70% VO2max for 30 min in the climatic chamber at an ambient temperature of 33°C in the presence (RAIN) or absence (CON) of 30 mm · h(-1) of precipitation and a headwind equal to the running velocity of 3.15 ± 0.19 m · s(-1). Oesophageal temperature, mean skin temperature, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, blood parameters, volume of expired air and sweat loss were measured. Oesophageal and mean skin temperatures were significantly lower from 5 to 30 min, and heart rate was significantly lower from 20 to 30 min in RAIN than in CON (P < 0.05 for all). Plasma lactate and epinephrine concentrations (30 min) and sweat loss were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in RAIN compared with CON. Rain appears to influence physiological and metabolic responses to exercise in heat such that heat-induced strain might be reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ito
- a University Educational Center, Nihon Fukushi University , Mihama-cho , Japan
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