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Jackson CM, Esnouf P, Duewer DL. Thrombin: An Approach to Developing a Higher-Order Reference Material and Reference Measurement Procedure for Substance Identity, Amount, and Biological Activities. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGY 2020; 125:125021. [PMID: 39035347 PMCID: PMC10871826 DOI: 10.6028/jres.125.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Thrombin, the proteolytic enzyme that catalyzes the transformation of soluble fibrinogen to the polymerized fibrin clot, participates in multiple reactions in blood coagulation in addition to the clotting reaction. Although reference materials have existed for many years, structural characterization and measurement of biological activity have never been sufficient to permit claims of clear metrological traceability for the thrombin preparations. Our current state-of-the-art methods for protein characterization and determination of the catalytic properties of thrombin now make it practical to develop and characterize a metrologically acceptable reference material and reference measurement procedure for thrombin. Specifically, α-thrombin, the biologically produced protease formed during prothrombin activation, is readily available and has been extensively characterized. Dependences of thrombin proteolytic and peptide hydrolytic activities on a variety of substrates, pH, specific ions, and temperature are established, although variability remains for the kinetic parameters that describe thrombin enzymatic action. The roles of specific areas on the surface of the thrombin molecule (exosites) in substrate recognition and catalytic efficiency are described and characterized. It is opportune to develop reference materials of high metrological order and technical feasibility. In this article, we review the properties of α-thrombin important for its preparation and suggest an approach suitable for producing a reference material and a reference measurement procedure that is sensitive to thrombin’s catalytic competency on a variety of substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - David L. Duewer
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA
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Mohammed BM, Matafonov A, Ivanov I, Sun MF, Cheng Q, Dickeson SK, Li C, Sun D, Verhamme IM, Emsley J, Gailani D. An update on factor XI structure and function. Thromb Res 2018; 161:94-105. [PMID: 29223926 PMCID: PMC5776729 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Factor XI (FXI) is the zymogen of a plasma protease, factor XIa (FXIa), that contributes to thrombin generation during blood coagulation by proteolytic activation of several coagulation factors, most notably factor IX (FIX). FXI is a homolog of prekallikrein (PK), a component of the plasma kallikrein-kinin system. While sharing structural and functional features with PK, FXI has undergone adaptive changes that allow it to contribute to blood coagulation. Here we review current understanding of the biology and enzymology of FXI, with an emphasis on structural features of the protein as they relate to protease function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassem M Mohammed
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA; School of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Anton Matafonov
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ivan Ivanov
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Mao-Fu Sun
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Qiufang Cheng
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - S Kent Dickeson
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Chan Li
- School of Pharmacy, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - David Sun
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Ingrid M Verhamme
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Jonas Emsley
- School of Pharmacy, Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - David Gailani
- Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.
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Wagenvoord R, Hemker HC, Kremers R. The effect of fibrin(ogen) on thrombin generation and decay. Thromb Haemost 2017; 112:486-94. [DOI: 10.1160/th14-02-0172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
SummaryDefibrination causes a ~30% decrease of thrombin generation (TG) which can be restored by adding native fibrinogen in its original concentration (3 mg/ml). The fibrinogen variant γA/γ′, which binds thrombin with high affinity, is over four times more efficient in this respect than the more common γA/γA form. By using high tissue factor concentrations we accelerated prothrombin conversion so as to obtain a descending part of the TG curve that was governed by thrombin decay only. From that part we calculated the antithrombin (AT)- and α2-macroglobulin- dependent decay constants at a series of concentrations of native, γA/γA and γA/γ′ fibrinogen. We found that the increase of TG in the presence of fibrinogen is primarily due to a dose-dependent decrease of thrombin inactivation by α2-macroglobulin, where the γA/γ′ form is much more active than the γA/γA form. AT-dependent decay is somewhat decreased by γA/γ′ fibrinogen but hardly by the γA/γA form. We assume that binding of thrombin to fibrin(ogen) interferes with its binding to inhibitors. Attenuation of decay only in part explains the stimulating effect of fibrinogen on TG, as fibrinogen stimulates prothrombin conversion, regardless of the fibrinogen variant.Note: Part of this work was presented at the ISTH meeting in 2013.
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Hopmeier P. Faktor XI. Hamostaseologie 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-01544-1_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Weeterings C, Adelmeijer J, Myles T, de Groot PG, Lisman T. Glycoprotein Ibα–Mediated Platelet Adhesion and Aggregation to Immobilized Thrombin Under Conditions of Flow. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26:670-5. [PMID: 16357309 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000200391.70818.a9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Thrombin interacts with platelets via the protease-activated receptors (PARs) 1 and 4, and via glycoprotein Ibalpha (GPIbalpha). Recently, it was shown that platelets are able to adhere to immobilized thrombin under static conditions via GPIbalpha. METHODS AND RESULTS Here, we show that platelets are also able to adhere to and form stable aggregates on immobilized thrombin under conditions of flow. Adhesion and aggregation to thrombin was dependent on the interaction with GPIbalpha, as addition of glycocalicin or an antibody blocking the interaction between thrombin and GPIbalpha inhibited platelet adhesion. Additionally, platelet adhesion to recombinant thrombin mutants, which are unable to bind GPIbalpha, was severely suppressed. Furthermore, platelet adhesion to thrombin was dependent on activation of PARs, and partly on granule secretion and thromboxane-A2 synthesis. Immobilization of thrombin on a fibrin network resulted in substantially increased adhesion compared with fibrin alone. The adhesion to fibrin alone was completely abolished by addition of dRGDW, whereas fibrin-bound thrombin still showed substantial platelet adhesion in the presence of dRGDW, indicating that fibrin-bound thrombin is able to directly capture platelets under flow. CONCLUSIONS These results indicate that platelets are able to adhere to thrombin under flow conditions, which is dependent on the interaction with GPIbalpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cees Weeterings
- Department of Haematology, University Medical Centre Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Huntington JA, Baglin TP. Targeting thrombin – rational drug design from natural mechanisms. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2003; 24:589-95. [PMID: 14607082 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2003.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
It is difficult to overstate the medical importance of the serine protease thrombin. Thrombin is involved in many diverse processes, such as cell signaling and memory, but it is the crucial role that it plays in blood coagulation that commands the interest of the medical community. Thrombosis is the most common cause of death in the industrialized world and, whether through venous thromboembolism, myocardial infarction or stroke, ultimately involves the inappropriate activity of thrombin. The number and type of intrinsic and extrinsic natural mechanisms of targeting thrombin that have evolved validate thrombin as an important physiological target, and provide strategies to knock it out. The more we learn about the natural mechanisms that determine thrombin specificity the more likely we are to develop compounds that selectively alter thrombin activity. In this article, we review the natural mechanisms that regulate thrombin activity and novel approaches to inhibit thrombin based on these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Huntington
- University of Cambridge, Department of Haematology, Division of Structural Medicine, Thrombosis Research Unit, Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2XY, UK.
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Lisman T, De Groot PG. Rebuttal to: Effect of heparin on TAFI-dependent inhibition of fibrinolysis. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1:200-1; author reply 202. [PMID: 12871566 DOI: 10.1046/j.1538-7836.2003.00036.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
Factor XI is a component of the intrinsic pathway of coagulation. A deficiency of factor XI is associated with a mild to moderate bleeding disorder especially from tissues with a high local fibrinolytic activity. In contrast, high levels of factor XI are a risk factor for venous thrombosis. The recent finding that factor XI can be activated by thrombin led to a revised model of coagulation. In this model the primary thrombin generation that results in fibrin formation takes place via the extrinsic pathway. Additional thrombin generation takes place inside the fibrin clot via the intrinsic pathway after the activation of factor XI by thrombin. High concentrations of thrombin are formed that are necessary for the activation of thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI). Activated TAFI protects the fibrin clot against lysis. The role of factor XI in hemostasis can therefore be seen as a combination of procoagulant and antifibrinolytic actions. The new insights in the role of factor XI in coagulation and fibrinolysis may lead to new strategies for the treatment of thrombotic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- B N Bouma
- Department of Haematology, University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
AbstractFactor XI is a plasma glycoprotein that is required for contact activation initiated fibrin formation in vitro and for normal hemostasis in vivo. In preparation for developing a mouse model of factor XI deficiency to facilitate investigations into this protease's contributions to coagulation, we cloned the complementary DNA for murine factor XI, expressed the protein in a mammalian expression system, and compared its properties with human recombinant factor XI. The 2.8-kb murine cDNA codes for a protein of 624 amino acids with 78% homology to human factor XI. Both recombinant murine and human factor XI are 160 kD homodimers comprised of two 80 kD polypeptides connected by disulfide bonds. Murine factor XI shortens the clotting time of human factor XI deficient plasma in an activated partial thromboplastin time assay, with a specific activity 50% to 70% that of the human protein. In a purified system, murine factor XI is activated by human factor XIIa and thrombin in the presence of dextran sulfate. Murine factor XI differs from human factor XI in that it undergoes autoactivation slowly in the presence of dextran sulfate. This is due primarily to murine factor XIa preferentially cleaving a site on zymogen factor XI within the light chain, rather than the activation site between Arg371 and Val372. Northern blots of polyadenylated messenger RNA show that murine factor XI message is expressed, as expected, primarily in the liver. In contrast, messenger RNA for human factor XI was identified in liver, pancreas, and kidney. The studies show that murine and human factor XI have similar structural and enzymatic properties. However, there may be variations in tissue specific expression and subtle differences in enzyme activity across species.
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Abstract
Factor XI is a plasma glycoprotein that is required for contact activation initiated fibrin formation in vitro and for normal hemostasis in vivo. In preparation for developing a mouse model of factor XI deficiency to facilitate investigations into this protease's contributions to coagulation, we cloned the complementary DNA for murine factor XI, expressed the protein in a mammalian expression system, and compared its properties with human recombinant factor XI. The 2.8-kb murine cDNA codes for a protein of 624 amino acids with 78% homology to human factor XI. Both recombinant murine and human factor XI are 160 kD homodimers comprised of two 80 kD polypeptides connected by disulfide bonds. Murine factor XI shortens the clotting time of human factor XI deficient plasma in an activated partial thromboplastin time assay, with a specific activity 50% to 70% that of the human protein. In a purified system, murine factor XI is activated by human factor XIIa and thrombin in the presence of dextran sulfate. Murine factor XI differs from human factor XI in that it undergoes autoactivation slowly in the presence of dextran sulfate. This is due primarily to murine factor XIa preferentially cleaving a site on zymogen factor XI within the light chain, rather than the activation site between Arg371 and Val372. Northern blots of polyadenylated messenger RNA show that murine factor XI message is expressed, as expected, primarily in the liver. In contrast, messenger RNA for human factor XI was identified in liver, pancreas, and kidney. The studies show that murine and human factor XI have similar structural and enzymatic properties. However, there may be variations in tissue specific expression and subtle differences in enzyme activity across species.
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