Saffron Flower Extract Promotes Scratch Wound Closure of Keratinocytes and Enhances VEGF Production

Regenerating Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) from Corm Lateral Buds via Indirect Somatic Embryogenesis

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.), being one of the distinguished commercial spice crops in the world, is in demand for its culinary, colorant, and pharmaceutical benefits. In this study, a novel indirect somatic embryogenesis (SE) system was, thus, established for the study of this plant. To this end, firstly, the lateral buds were cultured. Then, the cultures were transformed using Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with either 6-benzyladenine (BA: 5 and 10 mg/L), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA: 0, 1, and 2 mg/L), or trans-zeatin (tZ: 0, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/L), before being classified into four structures: white globular (WG), yellow compact nodular (YCN), yellow-brown fragile (YBF), and dark-brown porous (DBP). As soon as BA (10 mg/L) and NAA (2 mg/L) were added, elevated percentages of white globular calli (56.8%) and white globular calli (31.5%) structures were induced. Additionally, 6-benzyladenine (5 mg/L) and naphthalene acetic acid (1 mg/L) allowed the formation of yellow-brown fragile structures, and the combination of 6-benzyladenine (10 mg/L) with trans-zeatin (1 mg/L) formed the DBP structures. After three months, the white globular calli were incubated using the MS basal medium, before being augmented with thidiazuron (TDZ: 1 mg/L) and picloram (PIC: 2 mg/L), from which 60% of the cases matured into shoots and, ultimately, cormlets. Morphoanatomical analyses also showed that the white globular calli cells were closely arranged, as they had a dense cytoplasm, a significant vascular differentiation, and embryoids. Furthermore, the yellow compact nodular structures were characterized by a strong differentiation capacity and contained many meristematic cells with high caryomitosis centers. We observed that the yellow-brown fragile calli had looser cell arrangements, with a vascular structure located on the protoderm edge, while there was no obvious cellular arrangement in the dark-brown porous structures. The induction of the adventitious buds in vivo on the MS medium that was supplemented with thidiazuron and picloram accordingly demonstrated the highest rates (60%) of white globular calli.

Bioactive Components and Biological Activities of Crocus sativus L. Byproducts: A Comprehensive Review

The production of saffron spice results in numerous byproducts, as only 15 g of spice can be produced from 1 kg of flowers, indicating that over 90% of the saffron flower material is eventually discarded as waste. In view of this, the paper reviews current knowledge on the natural active components in saffron byproducts and their biological activities, aiming to lay a theoretical and scientific foundation for the further utilization. Saffron byproducts contain a variety of phytochemical components, such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, carotenoids, phenolic acids, monoterpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, and saponins. The activities of saffron byproducts and their mechanisms are also discussed in detail here.

Co-electrospun PCL-collagen nanofibers containing saffron-synthesized gold nanoparticles as an antioxidant wound dressing

Oxidant environment and inflammation are the leading cause of chronic wounds such as diabetic ulcers. A dressing containing antioxidants would ensure accelerated wound healing. In this study, electrospun gold nanoparticle (GNP)-embedded nanofibers were developed. GNPs (about 7 nm) were synthesized using saffron extract as a reducing and capping agent (GNP-EXT). For comparison, nanoparticles of the same size were also synthesized using citrate (GNP-CIT). Nanoparticle colloids showed a zeta potential of -27 mV. FTIR confirmed the presence of the extract molecules on the nanoparticles. DPPH assay demonstrated the significant radical scavenging properties of the GNP-EXT. The effect of nanoparticles on the viability of NIH3T3 mouse fibroblast cells was evaluated with an MTT assay that showed no significant toxicity of nanoparticles even in the highest concentration of 250 ppm. Then poly (ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL)- Collagen nanofibers containing GNPs were electrospun. By using SEM, TEM, ATR-FTIR, and contact angle measurement, the nanofibers were characterized. Proper cell adhesion and spreading was observed on nanofibers by SEM and Alamar blue assay illustrated appropriate cyto-compatibility on the obtained nanofibers after 5 days of cell seeding. Wound healing assay also confirmed the cell supporting properties and biocompatibility. The results suggest that saffron-synthesized GNP-loaded nanofibers would be considered as potential wound dressings.

Crocus sativus L. Extract (Saffron) Effectively Reduces Arthritic and Inflammatory Parameters in Monotherapy and in Combination with Methotrexate in Adjuvant Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disease, is characterized by inflammation that affects not only the liver but also other organs and the musculoskeletal system. The standard therapy for RA is methotrexate (MTX), which has safety limitations. The extract from Crocus sativus L. (saffron-SF) is also known for its anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we decided to investigate the potential benefit of SF in monotherapy via two doses (SF1-25 mg/kg of b.w.; SF2-50 mg/kg of b.w.) and in combination with MTX (0.3 mg/kg of b.w., twice a week) using adjuvant arthritis in rats. To evaluate these therapeutic settings, we used biometric, immunological, and biochemical parameters, as well as the relative gene expression of the mRNA in the liver. Our results showed a statistically significant increase in the experimental animals' body weight and the arthritic score (AS) on day 14 for monotherapy with SF1 and SF2. The change of hind paw volume (CHPV) was significant only for SF2 monotherapy on the 14th day of the experiment. A combination of SF1 and SF2 with MTX significantly modulated all the biometric parameters during the experimental period. Additionally, AS and CHPV improved considerably compared to MTX monotherapy on day 21. Furthermore, all monotherapies and combination therapies were significant for the biochemical parameter γ-glutamyl transferase (GGT) in the joint. GGT activity in the spleen was less pronounced; only MTX in combination with SF1 significantly modified this parameter. The higher dose of SF monotherapy (SF2) was similarly significant with respect to immunological parameters, such as plasmatic IL-17A, IL-1β, and MMP-9 on day 21. The combination of both doses of SF with MTX significantly improved these immunological parameters, except for C-reactive protein (CRP), which was influenced only by the higher dose of SF2 in combination with MTX in plasma at the end of the experiment. A different effect was found for the relative expression of CD36 mRNA, where only SF1 significantly decreased gene expression in the liver. However, the relative gene mRNA expression of IL-1β in the liver was significantly reduced by the SF monotherapies and the combination of both SF doses with MTX. Our findings showed SF's partial antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory potential in monotherapy, but the effect was stronger in combination with MTX.

Development of New Extracts of Crocus sativus L. By-Product from Two Different Italian Regions as New Potential Active Ingredient in Cosmetic Formulations

This project aimed to apply eco-friendly extraction methods to Crocus sativus L. by-product (flowers without stigmas i.e., tepals composed of petals and sepals) to recover extracts with high antioxidant capacity and polyphenol content, to be used in cosmetic products. Flowers grown in two different Italian regions (Sample 1—Alba in Piemonte, north of Italy and Sample 2—Sibillini in Marche, centre of Italy) were subjected for the first time to different eco-friendly microwave-mediated green solvents extractions (MGSE) andquali-quantitative determination in antioxidant molecules. Firstly, the extracts from Sample 1 were selected according to their total phenol content (TPC) by Folin–Ciocalteu’s assay and antioxidant capacity (AC) by spectrophotometric assays. Then, according to preliminary results, MGSE carried out in ethanol 70°, water, and glycerin were selected as the most performing methods and applied to both Samples 1 and 2. The best results were obtained using green solvents, such as water or ethanol 70°, for the samples coming from Marche. The identification and quantification of phenolic compounds, belonging to anthocyanins and flavonols classes, was performed by using UPLC-DAD-ESI-MS. Concerning flavonols content, the most abundant analyte is kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside and the extract in water from Sample 1 showed the higher amount of flavonols, reaching the concentration of 25.35 mg of kaempferol 3-O-glucoside equivalent per gram of tepals DW of raw material. Among anthocyanins, the most abundant was delphinidin 3,5-O-diglucoside and the high concentration of anthocyanin was detected in water and ethanol extract. Two new compounds, myricetin-di-glucoside and primflasine, were identified for the first time in Crocus sativus L. by-product by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The green batches obtained by extraction were thus characterized and evaluated for their biological potential and safety in keratinocyte HaCaT cells. The extracts were not cytotoxic up to 0.03 mg/mL. The water and ethanol 70° extracts were the most effective in counteracting oxidative stress induced by H2O2 and UVA exposure and reduced cytotoxicity induced by UVB exposure. The water extract was also able to significantly reduce cytotoxicity induced by sodium dodecyl sulphate-induced damage. Taken together, these results suggest a potential use of these waste materials as cosmeceutical preparations such as antiaging, and as anti-skin irritation formulation by-products.

Total Flavonoids of Crocus sativus Petals Release tert-Butyl Hydroperoxide-Induced Oxidative Stress in BRL-3A Cells

Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities in vitro of saffron petals were examined in this study for better utilizing saffron (Crocus sativus L.) biowaste. Using the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging method, we compared the antioxidant activity and the content of total flavonoid extracts from petals (TFESP), stamens (TFESS), and both saffron petals and stamens (TFEMS). The results showed that the antioxidant capacity and the flavonoid content of TFESP were higher than those of TFESS and TFEMS. Then, the hepatoprotective activity of TFESP was determined, and the silymarin was used as a positive control. The main components of TFESP were analysed by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) photodiode array (PDA)/mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The result showed that (1) TFESP could release oxidative liver injury induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP). (2) TFESP could reduce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS); enhance the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH); and then improve the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in BRL-3A cells. (3) TFESP could enhance the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) and decrease the expression of caspase-3 and caspase-9; increase the expression of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1 (Keap-1), nuclear factor, erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), superoxide dismutase, and heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1); and downregulate inducible nitric oxide synthase (INOS), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and nuclear factor kappa B-9 (NF-κB-9). (4) The main hepatoprotective component of TFESP was identified as kaempferol-3-o-sophoroside. The mechanism may be that kaempferol-3-o-sophoroside can protect t-BHP-induced cell injury by regulating the expression of antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory genes. Thus, saffron petals are a potential hepatoprotective resource worthy of development.

Saponins from Saffron Corms Inhibit the Gene Expression and Secretion of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines

Corms are obtained as a byproduct during the cultivation of saffron (Crocus sativus). In a project aimed at the valorization of this waste product, we observed that a 70% EtOH extract of the corms and a sugar-depleted MeOH fraction of the extract inhibited the TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced secretion and gene expression of the chemokines IL-8, MCP-1, and RANTES in human HaCaT cells. The effects were in part stronger than those of the positive control hydrocortisone. For preparative isolation, the 70% EtOH extract was partitioned between n-BuOH and water. Separation of the n-BuOH-soluble fraction by centrifugal partition chromatography, followed by preparative and semipreparative HPLC, afforded a series of bidesmosidic glycosides of echinocystic acid bearing a 3,16-dihydroxy-10-oxo-hexadecanoic acid residue attached to the glycosidic moiety at C-28. They include azafrines 1 and 2, previously reported in saffron, and eight new congeners named azafrines 3-10. Saffron saponins significantly inhibited TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced secretion of RANTES in human HaCaT cells at 1 μM (p < 0.001). Some of them further lowered TNF-α/IFN-γ-induced gene expression.

Gastroprotective activity of kaempferol glycosides from Malvaviscus arboreus Cav

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Malvaviscus arboreus is traditionally used in Mexico and Central America for culinary and medicinal purposes. Leaves and flowers of this species are commonly used for preparation of salads, herbal teas and herbal dyes. Panamanian, Guatemalan and Mexican healers use this medicinal plant for the management of fever, respiratory complications, dysentery, liver and gallbladder problems, stomachache and gastritis between other health troubles.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Considering the traditional use of M. arboreous as well as its content in flavonoids and other polyphenols, the objective of this work was to evaluate the gastroprotective effect of an aqueous extract and identify the potential bio-active principles from flowers of this species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fresh flowers of Malvaviscus arboreus were collected, dried, and macerated with water. The aqueous extract (ExAq) was partitioned using an immiscible mixture of water and ethyl acetate, giving an aqueous (MaAq) and organic (MaEA) fractions. The gastroprotective effect was carried out using an ethanol-induced gastric ulcer experimental test in male rats. While tween 20 was used as a negative control, famotidine (10 mg/kg) and L-arginine (300 mg/kg) were used as positive controls. Compounds 1 and 2 were isolated by several chromatographic techniques and the chemical characterization was carried out by means of the analysis of the NMR spectra in one and two dimensions.

RESULTS

The integrate extract (ExAq) to 250, 500 and 750 mg/kg showed gastroprotective effect with high levels of 97.8%, 79.5% and 91.1% respectively. The organic fraction (MaEA) displayed a protection of 91.2%, 96.0% and 99.4% when it was evaluated at 125, 250 and 500 mg/kg respectively. Comparison of these results with famotidine at 10 mg/kg (83% of gastroprotection) indicated that ethyl acetate fraction showed a better gastroprotection. The bio-guided separation of this organic mixture, allowed obtaining the most active fraction (C1F4, 60 mg/kg) which was finally purified to obtain two glycosylated flavonols: kaempferol 3-O-D-sophoroside (1) and kaempferol 3-O-D-sambubioside (2). This mixture of flavonoids (40 y 60 mg/kg) showed 93.7 and 92% of gastroprotective activity respectively.

CONCLUSION

This study allowed demonstrating that an aqueous extract and its organic fraction (MaEA) from M. arboreous contain glycosylated flavonoids (1 and 2) which are responsible of the gastroprotective properties of M. arboreous. These results will be used in the future development of a standardized treatment useful in the therapeutic management of gastric ulcers.

Novel Insight into Utilization of Flavonoid Glycosides and Biological Properties of Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) Flower Byproducts

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) byproducts are considered as a cheap source of bioactive polyphenolics endowed with potential antioxidant effects. The saffron biowaste is utilized for extraction of flavonoid glycosides and their potential biological properties. The total amount of polyphenolics and polysaccharides was found to be higher in the tepal than in the stamen. The bioactive compounds quercetin-3-O-sophoroside (Q-3-sop) and kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside (K-3-sop) were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography equipped with a photodiode array detector (HPLC-PDA) and identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The antioxidant effects were studied using 2,2 diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), ferric ion reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC); Q-3-sop showed stronger antioxidant effects compared to K-3-sop, crocin-I, and crocin-II. Furthermore, Q-3-sop also inhibited cell apoptosis caused by H₂O₂ by reducing the levels of cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). In terms of cytogenetic effects, Q-3-sop revealed no cytogenic effects on onion root meristem cells but chromosomal aberration was observed at the highest dose (200 ppm). Thus, saffron byproducts and its flavonoids could be utilized as natural antioxidant agents with no cytogenetic effects.