Modelling the Relationships between Training, Anxiety, and Fatigue in Elite Athletes

Effect of High-Volume Training on Psychological State and Performance in Competitive Swimmers

This study aimed to examine the effect of four weeks of aquatic high-volume training (HVT) on the psychological state (somatic, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence) and sprint swimming performance (50 m front crawl) compared to the standard training program (moderate volume training) in competitive swimmers. Twenty-eight male competitive swimmers participated in this study and were randomly allocated into two groups: HVT group (n = 14; age = 16.4 ± 0.31 years) and control group that underwent the standard training program (n = 14; age = 16.1 ± 0.30 years). All psychological state variables and swimming performance were measured in pre and post-test. Our findings showed a significant increase in anxiety state (34.13% to 45.83%; ES = 3.26 to 3.38) and a significant decrease in self-confidence (18.43%; ES = 2.39) after four weeks of HVT, while all psychological state variables remained unchanged in the control group (p > 0.05). In addition, our results showed no significant enhancement in swimming performance in both groups (p > 0.05). The sudden increase in training mileage negatively affected the anxiety, decreasing the state of self-confidence of the participants. In addition, four weeks of high training volume are insufficient to improve swimming performance. To conclude, gradually increasing the volume of the training load may be an adequate solution to promote adaptation to the effort, thus maintaining the stability of the psychological state of swimmers. In addition, it is recommended to integrate a concurrent mental preparation program with high-volume training to monitor the psychological state of competitive swimmers.

Training load responses modelling and model generalisation in elite sports

This study aims to provide a transferable methodology in the context of sport performance modelling, with a special focus to the generalisation of models. Data were collected from seven elite Short track speed skaters over a three months training period. In order to account for training load accumulation over sessions, cumulative responses to training were modelled by impulse, serial and bi-exponential responses functions. The variable dose-response (DR) model was compared to elastic net (ENET), principal component regression (PCR) and random forest (RF) models, while using cross-validation within a time-series framework. ENET, PCR and RF models were fitted either individually (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$M_{I}$$\end{document}MI) or on the whole group of athletes (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$M_{G}$$\end{document}MG). Root mean square error criterion was used to assess performances of models. ENET and PCR models provided a significant greater generalisation ability than the DR model (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p = 0.018$$\end{document}p=0.018, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p < 0.001$$\end{document}p<0.001, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p = 0.004$$\end{document}p=0.004 and \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p < 0.001$$\end{document}p<0.001 for \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ENET_{I}$$\end{document}ENETI, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ENET_{G}$$\end{document}ENETG, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$PCR_{I}$$\end{document}PCRI and \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$PCR_{G}$$\end{document}PCRG, respectively). Only \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$ENET_{G}$$\end{document}ENETG and \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$RF_{G}$$\end{document}RFG were significantly more accurate in prediction than DR (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p < 0.001$$\end{document}p<0.001 and \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p < 0.012$$\end{document}p<0.012). In conclusion, ENET achieved greater generalisation and predictive accuracy performances. Thus, building and evaluating models within a generalisation enhancing procedure is a prerequisite for any predictive modelling.

Effects of Mental Training Through Imagery on the Competitive Anxiety of Adolescent Tennis Players Fasting During Ramadan: A Randomized, Controlled Experimental Study

This study aimed to analyze the effects of mental training through imagery on the competitive anxiety of adolescent tennis players fasting during Ramadan. This is an experimental study conducted with 38 male tennis players, randomly allocated to two groups: an experimental group (EG, n = 18), aged 16.9 ± 0.6 years, and a control group (CG, n = 20), aged 16.7 ± 0.8 years. The study was designed as a randomized, controlled experimental trial (registration code PACTR 202006847771700). CG watched historical videos of the Olympics, while EG performed mental training. The competitive anxiety state assessment was recorded four times. The first measurement was carried out 1 week before Ramadan, the second measurement during the first week of the month, the third measurement at the end of the second week, and, finally, the fourth measurement during the fourth week of Ramadan. Our results revealed a significant interaction (time × groups) for all competitive anxiety subscales. Higher intensity and direction scores for the cognitive and somatic anxiety subscales during Ramadan compared with before Ramadan for both groups could be reported at P < 0.001. Higher intensity and direction scores for the cognitive and somatic anxiety subscales during Ramadan compared with pre-Ramadan for both groups could be found at P < 0.01. This increase in scores was greater for the CG than for the EG in the middle and at the end of Ramadan at P < 0.001. Finally, for the self-confidence subscale score, results revealed that intensity and direction scores were lower during Ramadan compared with pre-Ramadan for the two groups at P < 0.01. The score for the intensity of self-confidence was higher for the EG compared with the CG at the end of Ramadan at P < 0.001. It was concluded that mental imagery training was effective in reducing anxiety (cognitive and somatic) and increasing self-confidence in the intensity dimension of adolescent tennis players who fast during Ramadan.

Modelling performance with exponential functions in elite short-track speed skaters

Mathematical models are used to describe and predict the effects of training on performance. The initial models are structured by impulse-type transfer functions, however, cellular adaptations induced by exercise may exhibit exponential kinetics for their growth and subsequent dissipation. Accumulation of exercise bouts counteracts dissipation and progressively induces structural and functional changes leading to performance improvement. This study examined the suitability of a model with exponential terms (Exp-Model) in elite short-track speed (ST) skaters. Training loads and performance evolution from fifteen athletes (10 males, 5 females) were previously collected over a 3-month training period. Here, we computed the relationship between training loads and performance with Exp-Model and compared with previous results obtained with a variable dose-response model (Imp-Model). Exp-Model showed a higher correlation between actual and modelled performances (R² = 0.83 ± 0.08 and 0.76 ± 0.07 for Exp-Model and Imp-Model, respectively). Concerning model parameters, a higher τA1 (time constant for growth) value was found (p = 0.0047; d = 1.4; 95% CI [0.4;1.9]) in males compared to females with Exp-model, suggesting that females have a faster adaptative response to training loads. Thus, according to this study, Exp-model may better describe training adaptations in elite ST athletes than Imp-Model.

Determinants of anxiety in elite athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective

To identify and quantify determinants of anxiety symptoms and disorders experienced by elite athletes.

Design

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

Data sources

Five online databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, PsycINFO, Scopus and Cochrane) were searched up to November 2018 to identify eligible citations.

Eligibility criteria for selecting studies

Articles were included if they were published in English, were quantitative studies and measured a symptom-level anxiety outcome in competing or retired athletes at the professional (including professional youth), Olympic or collegiate/university levels.

Results and summary

We screened 1163 articles; 61 studies were included in the systematic review and 27 of them were suitable for meta-analysis. Overall risk of bias for included studies was low. Athletes and non-athletes had no differences in anxiety profiles (d=−0.11, p=0.28). Pooled effect sizes, demonstrating moderate effects, were identified for (1) career dissatisfaction (d=0.45; higher anxiety in dissatisfied athletes), (2) gender (d=0.38; higher anxiety in female athletes), (3) age (d=−0.34; higher anxiety for younger athletes) and (4) musculoskeletal injury (d=0.31; higher anxiety for injured athletes). A small pooled effect was found for recent adverse life events (d=0.26)—higher anxiety in athletes who had experienced one or more recent adverse life events.

Conclusion

Determinants of anxiety in elite populations broadly reflect those experienced by the general population. Clinicians should be aware of these general and athlete-specific determinants of anxiety among elite athletes.

Efeito da Ansiedade Competitiva sobre a Tomada de Decisão em Jovens Atletas de Voleibol

Resumo O objetivo do estudo foi analisar o efeito da ansiedade competitiva sobre a tomada de decisão de jovens atletas de voleibol. A amostra foi composta por 24 voluntários do sexo masculino (16,06 ±0,65 anos). Utilizou-se a versão brasileira do Competitite State Anxiety Inventory para avaliar a ansiedade competitiva. A tomada de decisão foi avaliada em situação real de jogo, adotando-se os critérios do Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI). Localizaram-se correlações negativas da ansiedade cognitiva e ansiedade somática com o índice de tomada de decisão (p<0,05). Revelaram-se correlações positivas entre a “autoconfiança” e o índice de tomada de decisão (p<0,05). Revelou-se influência da ansiedade cognitiva, somática e autoconfiança no índice de tomada de decisão (p<0,05). Concluiu-se que a ansiedade pode ser considerada um fator interveniente na tomada de decisão.

Systems model and individual simulations of training strategies in elite short-track speed skaters

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of simulated training strategies on performance potential in elite short-track speed skaters. Training load and field-based criterion performances from fifteen athletes (10 males, 5 females) were collected over a 3-month training period and the relationship between training loads and performance was computed with a variable dose-response model using a genetic algorithm. Individual simulations of tapers preceded or not preceded by an overload training (OT) were assessed. We obtained a significant correlation between actual and modelled performances (R² = 0.76 ± 0.07). Regarding model parameters, no significant difference was found between males and females but the time to recover performance tended to be lower in females. Simulations in which the taper parameters were free highlighted that an exponential or a step taper were the most effective for increasing performance compared to a linear taper (p < 0.05). Optimal exponential taper duration after OT was 10.7 ± 2.4d and the optimal load reduction was 75.9 ± 3.7%. OT intensity had the greatest influence on the predicted performance, followed by OT duration, taper decay, and to a lesser extent load reduction during taper and taper duration. Thus, a variable dose-response systems model allows the evaluation of different taper strategies and their potential effect on performance changes.

Overload blunts baroreflex only in overreached athletes

OBJECTIVES

Heart rate variability (HRV) is commonly used to diagnose overreaching and monitor athletes' responses to training. Baroreflex sensitivity (BRS) is modified by changes in training load and might be another means to detect overreaching. The goal of this study was to assess BRS and HRV changes in two groups of athletes responding either negatively (FOR) or positively (AF) to similar training overload.

DESIGN

Fifteen athletes performed 2-week baseline (BSL) training followed by 3-week overload (+45%; OVL) and 2-week recovery (-20%; RCV).

METHODS

HRV, training load and subjective fatigue were measured daily via questionnaires. BRS, salivary cortisol and testosterone, and submaximal exercise and maximal 3-km run performances were measured at the end of each period.

RESULTS

Based on their performance change during OVL, 8 athletes were diagnosed as FOR and 7 as AF. Subjective fatigue was increased in FOR athletes during OVL. BRS increased in AF but not in FOR athletes during RCV. At the end of RCV, cortisol and testosterone were higher than BSL in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Three weeks of similar training overload can induce either performance enhancement or overreaching. The changes in submaximal exercise and maximal performances and in subjective fatigue were the fastest-responding parameters that distinguished the two groups of athletes during OVL. Training overload blunted the increase in BRS in FOR only. Most of the differences in BRS were observed during the recovery period. BRS appears to be a more sensitive parameter than HRV for early monitoring of responses to training.

Changes of Swimmers' Emotional States during the Preparation of National Championship: Do Recovery-Stress States Matter?

This study examined the trajectories of emotional states and their within-person synergies with perceived stress and recovery during a 4-month training period preceding the French swimming championships. A Multilevel Growth Curve Analysis approach was used with 16 high level swimmers. Five waves of assessments of emotional states, perceived stress and recovery were completed. Results indicated that emotional states were characterized by distinct trajectories during the training period preceding a major competition. Specifically, significant positive linear effects of time (i.e., linear increase over time) and negative quadratic effects of squared time (i.e., inverted U shape over time) on anxiety, dejection and anger were observed, whereas the opposite pattern of results was found for happiness and excitement. Moreover, level 2 perceived stress and recovery (i.e., inter-individual predictors) were significantly associated with athletes' unpleasant and pleasant emotional states respectively. At level 1, perceived recovery (i.e., intra-individual predictor) was positively associated with happiness and excitement and negatively related to anxiety, dejection and anger. Finally, within-person interactions of general stress and recovery with time and squared time reached significance for excitement, whereas within-person interactions of specific and total stress with time and squared time reached significance for anxiety. Overall, this study provided insights into the central role played by perceived stress and recovery on the emotional states experienced by high level swimmers. Operational strategies were suggested in order to optimize the stress-recovery balance and in turn the athletes' emotional states during a complete training program.

The impact of triathlon training and racing on athletes' general health

Although the sport of triathlon provides an opportunity to research the effect of multi-disciplinary exercise on health across the lifespan, much remains to be done. The literature has failed to consistently or adequately report subject age group, sex, ability level, and/or event-distance specialization. The demands of training and racing are relatively unquantified. Multiple definitions and reporting methods for injury and illness have been implemented. In general, risk factors for maladaptation have not been well-described. The data thus far collected indicate that the sport of triathlon is relatively safe for the well-prepared, well-supplied athlete. Most injuries 'causing cessation or reduction of training or seeking of medical aid' are not serious. However, as the extent to which they recur may be high and is undocumented, injury outcome is unclear. The sudden death rate for competition is 1.5 (0.9-2.5) [mostly swim-related] occurrences for every 100,000 participations. The sudden death rate is unknown for training, although stroke risk may be increased, in the long-term, in genetically susceptible athletes. During heavy training and up to 5 days post-competition, host protection against pathogens may also be compromised. The incidence of illness seems low, but its outcome is unclear. More prospective investigation of the immunological, oxidative stress-related and cardiovascular effects of triathlon training and competition is warranted. Training diaries may prove to be a promising method of monitoring negative adaptation and its potential risk factors. More longitudinal, medical-tent-based studies of the aetiology and treatment demands of race-related injury and illness are needed.

Rationale and resources for teaching the mathematical modeling of athletic training and performance

A number of professions rely on exercise prescription to improve health or athletic performance, including coaching, fitness/personal training, rehabilitation, and exercise physiology. It is therefore advisable that the professionals involved learn the various tools available for designing effective training programs. Mathematical modeling of athletic training and performance, which we henceforth call "performance modeling," is one such tool. Two models, the critical power (CP) model and the Banister impulse-response (IR) model, offer complementary information. The CP model describes the relationship between work rates and the durations for which an individual can sustain them during constant-work-rate or intermittent exercise. The IR model describes the dynamics by which an individual's performance capacity changes over time as a function of training. Both models elegantly abstract the underlying physiology, and both can accurately fit performance data, such that educating exercise practitioners in the science of performance modeling offers both pedagogical and practical benefits. In addition, performance modeling offers an avenue for introducing mathematical modeling skills to exercise physiology researchers. A principal limitation to the adoption of performance modeling is a lack of education. The goal of this report is therefore to encourage educators of exercise physiology practitioners and researchers to incorporate the science of performance modeling in their curricula and to serve as a resource to support this effort. The resources include a comprehensive review of the concepts associated with the development and use of the models, software to enable hands-on computer exercises, and strategies for teaching the models to different audiences.

Sleep or swim? Early-morning training severely restricts the amount of sleep obtained by elite swimmers

Good sleep is essential for optimal performance, yet few studies have examined the sleep/wake behaviour of elite athletes. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of early-morning training on the amount of sleep obtained by world-class swimmers. A squad of seven swimmers from the Australian Institute of Sport participated in this study during 14 days of high-intensity training in preparation for the 2008 Olympic Games. During these 14 days, participants had 12 training days, each starting with a session at 06:00 h, and 2 rest days. For each day, the amount of sleep obtained by participants was determined using self-report sleep diaries and wrist-worn activity monitors. On nights that preceded training days, participants went to bed at 22:05 h (s=00:52), arose at 05:48 h (s=00:24) and obtained 5.4 h (s=1.3) of sleep. On nights that preceded rest days, participants went to bed at 00:32 h (s=01:29), arose at 09:47 h (s=01:47) and obtained 7.1 h (s=1.2) of sleep. Mixed model analyses revealed that on nights prior to training days, bedtimes and get-up times were significantly earlier (p<0.001), time spent in bed was significantly shorter (p<0.001) and the amount of sleep obtained was significantly less (p<0.001), than on nights prior to rest days. These results indicate that early-morning training sessions severely restrict the amount of sleep obtained by elite athletes. Given that chronic sleep restriction of <6 h per night can impair psychological and physiological functioning, it is possible that early-morning schedules actually limit the effectiveness of training.

Influence of a conservative sleep management strategy during a solo Pacific Ocean crossing on anxiety and perceived fatigue: a case study

The aim of this case study was to determine whether a sailor's deliberate choice of a conservative strategy to manage sleep deprivation would allow him to cross the Pacific Ocean and to minimize his state of anxiety and perceived fatigue. The participant, who had more than 10 years' sailing experience in severe conditions, was tested on a small catamaran without any living quarters during a solo Pacific Ocean crossing. Estimations of sleep hours, state anxiety, and perceived fatigue were self-reported by the sailor on a daily basis using a specific questionnaire. The most important finding is that the sailor's deliberate sleep strategy, 5.4 h sleep per day (24% less than on-shore), was enough to keep his anxiety and perceived fatigue within acceptable limits and enabled him to achieve his goal, which was the first crossing of the Pacific Ocean on a catamaran of less than 6 m. In conclusion, our results suggest that the sailor observed in the present case study was able to minimize anxiety and perceived fatigue with adequate sleep to optimize his performance, security, and to achieve his goal.