Esophageal perforation due to endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography

Esophageal trauma

The anatomy of the esophagus is unique in that it traverses the neck, chest, and abdomen. As a result, surgeons need to be familiar with the anatomy of all three of these areas to be facile and comfortable in performing esophageal surgery. Traumatic injuries to the esophagus encompass a heterogeneous group of injuries that can be iatrogenic, external, or from physiologic forces. Primary repair of traumatic injuries is preferred when possible; however, if systemic sepsis is present and esophageal resection becomes necessary due to extensive injury or inflammation, immediate reconstruction should be delayed in most cases. Successful management of traumatic esophageal injuries requires prompt and accurate diagnosis and treatment tailored specifically to both the type of injury as well as to the patient's overall clinical condition.

The spectrum of spontaneous and iatrogenic esophageal injury: perforations, Mallory-Weiss tears, and hematomas

Esophageal perforations, Mallory-Weiss tears, and esophageal hematoma involve traumatic injury to the esophagus. These can be iatrogenic, in particular due to esophageal instrumentation, but can also occur spontaneously. The remarkable increase in diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopy as well as esophageal surgery has made instrumentation the most common cause of esophageal perforation. In many instances, spontaneous perforations are associated with retching and vomiting, which causes a sudden increase in intraesophageal pressure. A high index of suspicion leading to rapid diagnosis and appropriate therapy are needed to optimize clinical outcomes. This article focuses on esophageal perforations, Mallory-Weiss tears, and esophageal hematomas, with emphasis on etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, management, and prevention.