Relationships between exhaustive mood state and changes in stress hormones following an ultraendurance race

Association of overtime work hours with various stress responses in 59,021 Japanese workers: Retrospective cross-sectional study

This study aims to clarify the relationships between length of overtime work and various stress responses using large-scale cross-sectional data of Japanese workers. This study's participants are 59,021 Japanese workers in 117 companies. Data was collected by self-reporting questionnaire. The Brief Job Stress Questionnaire was used to measure stress responses on six scales (i.e. "lack of vigor", "irritability", "fatigue", "anxiety", "depression", and "somatic responses"). Length of overtime work hours were classified as 0-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, 51-60, 61-70, 71-80, and >80 hours/month. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to examine the association of stress responses with overtime while adjusting all possible confounders. In result, workers with longer overtime showed significantly higher "irritability", "fatigue", "anxiety", "depression", and "somatic responses" for both genders (p-for-trend <0.001), however, length of overtime was negatively associated with "lack of vigor" among men (p-for-trend <0.001). Men with 61-80 hours of overtime showed high fatigue with high vigor at the same time. Length of overtime was linearly associated with various stress responses, except for "lack of vigor". Length of overtime shows linear associations with various psychosomatic stress responses. However, "lack of vigor" was not consistently associated with overtime. Male workers with 61-80 hours of monthly overtime were more likely to feel vigorous than workers with shorter overtime. However, potential longterm effects of such extreme overtime should not be underestimated and must be paid attention to.

Influence of Training Load on Mood Disturbance at Sea Level and 3900 m Altitude: A Case Study of a Wheelchair Athlete

The purpose of this case study was to investigate the influence of a training load (TL), oxygen saturation (SO₂) and blood pressure (BP) on mood states in a wheelchair marathoner during (7 weeks at sea level (SL), 5 weeks at 3860 m altitude, 1 week returning to SL). TL was obtained with Foster’s equation while mood states were obtained with the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire (POMS). Furthermore, SO₂ and BP were assessed upon wakening. SO₂ (%) decreased at altitude, compared to SL (88.31 ± 2.46 vs. 98.52 ± 0.11) and increased until the last week at altitude (92.64 ± 1.12). Systolic pressure (SP) increased at altitude compared to pre-altitude (126.0 ± 5.1 vs. 107.6 ± 4.4 mmhg), and was not different from the last week at altitude. Controlling for SO₂ and SP, differences were also observed in fatigue (97.66 ± 18.92 vs. 17.39 ± 13.71) and vigor (73.23 ± 8.62 vs. 26.48 ± 11.89) as a function of altitude. Upon return to SL, fatigue, vigor, SO₂ and SP returned to pre values. This case study demonstrated the POMS was sensitive to worsening patterns in fatigue and vigor at altitude through a practical survey approach combined with daily physiological assessment.

Measuring Recovery in Elite Rugby Players: The Brief Assessment of Mood, Endocrine Changes, and Power

PURPOSE

There is demand in applied sport settings to measure recovery briefly and accurately. Research indicates mood disturbance as the strongest psychological predictor of mental and physical recovery. The Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) is a shortened version of the Profile of Mood States that can be completed in less than 30 s. The purpose of this study was to examine the BAM as a quick measure of mood in relation to recovery status in elite rugby players alongside established physiological markers of recovery.

METHOD

Using elite rugby union players (N = 12), this study examined the utility of BAM as an indicator of mental and physical recovery in elite athletes by exploring pattern change in mood disturbance, energy index, power output, cortisol, and testosterone 36 hr before and 12 hr, 36 hr, and 60 hr after a competitive rugby match.

RESULTS

Repeated-measures multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant changes in all variables across the 4 time points (p < .05, η(2) range = .20-.48), concurrent with previous study findings. Although visual inspection of the graphs indicated that the pattern of change for mood disturbance and energy index mapped changes in all physiological variables, only a low correlation was observed for power output (r = - .34).

CONCLUSIONS

Although BAM scores changed significantly over time in accordance with the hypotheses, further testing is required to confirm the utility of the BAM as a measure of recovery. The results indicate that the BAM could be used as 1 indicator of recovery status alongside other measures.

Manifestaciones tempranas de sobreentrenamiento en deportistas en el período precompetitivo antes de unos juegos nacionales: un estudio transversal

Objetivo: evaluar la frecuencia de manifestaciones tempranas del síndrome de sobre-entrenamiento (SSE) en deportistas antioqueños en el período precompetitivo antes de los Juegos Nacionales, Colombia 2012.Materiales y métodos: con el cuestionario de la Sociedad Francesa de Medicina del Deporte (SMFS) se hizo un estudio transversal de 153 deportistas de alto rendimiento pertenecientes a 28 disciplinas diferentes.Resultados: el promedio de edad fue de 23,6 ± 5,5 años; 56,9% eran hombres. La frecuencia de los síntomas tempranos del SSE fue del 24,8%. En los afectados se halló mayor volumen de entrenamiento (24,3 ± 10,3 frente a 19,7 ± 9,4 horas/semana; p = 0,018), con mayor frecuencia pertenecían a una disciplina individual (81,6% frente a 55,7%; p = 0,017), estaban estudiando (76,3% frente a 56,5%; p = 0,030), se encontraban en períodos de exámenes (42,1 frente a 21,2%; p = 0,029) y habían percibido más situaciones de estrés en el último mes (62,2% frente a 16,2%; p < 0,01).Conclusiones: se encontró una alta frecuencia de manifestaciones tempranas del SSE, que fue mayor en las mujeres que en los hombres. Diversos factores individuales, relacionados con el entrenamiento y el tipo de deporte, podrían estar asociados con dichas manifestaciones.

Neuromuscular function, hormonal, and mood responses to a professional rugby union match

We examined the recovery time-course of neuromuscular function (NMF), the testosterone and cortisol hormonal milieu, and mood for 60 hours after a competitive match in professional rugby union players (n = 14). Thirty-six hours prematch (19:30 hours kick-off), baseline saliva samples (testosterone, cortisol, and testosterone to cortisol [T/C] ratio), countermovement jump performances (peak power output [PPO]), and mood disruption (Brief Assessment of Mood Questionnaire) were collected and was repeated at 12, 36, and 60 hours postmatch. Peak power output decreased below baseline at 12 hours (baseline 6,100 ± 565 W vs. 12 h 5,680 ± 589 W; p = 0.004) and 36 hours (5,761 ± 639 W; p < 0.001) but had recovered at 60 hours (5,950 ± 505 W; p = 0.151). Cortisol concentrations increased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 0.40 ± 0.09 µg·dl-1 vs. 12 h 0.60 ± 0.20 µg·dl-1; p = 0.004) and 36 hours (0.60 ± 0.20 µg·dl-1; p = 0.027) but were similar at 60 hours postmatch. Testosterone concentrations decreased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 214 ± 84 pg·ml-1 vs. 12 h 151 ± 56 pg·ml-1; p = 0.023) and 36 hours (173 ± 71 pg·ml-1; p = 0.016) but were similar at 60 hours postmatch. The T/C ratio decreased from baseline at 12 hours (baseline 551 ± 219 vs. 12 h 266 ± 123; p = 0.001) and 36 hours (310 ± 148; p = 0.027) before returning to baseline at 60 hours postmatch. Mood disturbance increased at 12 hours (p = 0.031) before returning to baseline at 36 and 60 hours postmatch. There were no relationships between changes in PPO, testosterone, cortisol, T/C ratio, and mood. In conclusion, postmatch changes in NMF, salivary hormones, and mood disturbance were identified in professional rugby union players. Players and coaches can expect reduced NMF and hormonal disruption for 36 hours before recovering at 60 hours postmatch, with mood recovered by 36 hours postmatch. Knowledge of these recovery time-courses may prove useful for player training program design and postmatch recovery strategies.

Salivary concentrations of cortisol and testosterone and prediction of performance in a professional triathlon competition

The aim of this study was to examine salivary cortisol and testosterone concentrations in professional male athletes during a short triathlon competition using non-invasive methods, and to determine whether these hormone concentrations could be accurate predictors of performance. Eight adult male athletes (age, mean ± SEM: 27.8 ± 3.2 years; body mass index: 21.66 ± 0.42) in a professional triathlon team volunteered to participate in this study. Saliva samples were taken on the competition day and 7 days after competition on a rest day. The performance of the athletes was assessed by their rank order in the competition. Salivary cortisol concentrations were greater on the competition day than on the rest day in the early morning, immediately after waking up, 30 min later, immediately before the start of the competition, and later in the evening. Testosterone concentrations were greater on the competition day in the morning and in the evening. The diurnal rhythm of both cortisol and testosterone concentrations was maintained on both days and the testosterone/cortisol ratio (T/C ratio) was similar between days. The performance of the athletes was positively correlated with salivary cortisol concentration in the early morning of the competition day, but was not correlated with testosterone concentrations at any of the time points. In conclusion, early morning salivary cortisol concentration, but not T/C ratio, could be used to predict performance in athletes during a professional triathlon competition.

Stress-related hormonal and psychological changes to official youth Taekwondo competitions

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an official Taekwondo competition on the heart rate (HR), salivary α-amylase (sA-A), salivary free cortisol (sC), and Profile of Mood States (POMS) in 10 young male (14±0 years) and six female (13±1 years) athletes. POMS and hormones were measured 15 min before and directly after the competition. During the recovery phase (30 and 90 min), sA-A and sC were also measured. HR measured during the competition was expressed as a percentage of individual's maximal heart rate (%HR(max) ) to evaluate the intensity of exercise. During the competition, athletes spent 65% of the time working at HR>90% of individuals HR(max). A significant increase (P<0.0001) in sA-A (115%) was observed at the end of the match. At 30 min of recovery, sA-A returned to the pre-competition level. The peak sC values were observed at 30 min of recovery (P<0.001), returning to the pre-competition level at 90 min of recovery. A gender difference (P=0.01) emerged only for sC, although a similar trend was observed for female and male athletes. Significantly higher post-match scores emerged for Anger-hostility (pre: 6.1±1.1, post: 11.2±1.9; P=0.03) and Depression-dejection (pre: 4.5±0.5, post: 10.2±1.9; P=0.006), whereas the reverse picture was observed for Vigour-activity (pre: 23.2±1.2, post: 16.3±1.7; P=0.0006). Taekwondo competition results in temporary changes in the stress-related parameters measured in this study. The present findings suggest that this experimental paradigm can represent a useful model for further research on the effects of various stressors (i.e., training and competition) in Taekwondo athletes of different levels (i.e., novice, international).

Medical considerations in triathlon competition: recommendations for triathlon organisers, competitors and coaches

Competitors in triathlons experience a range of environmental conditions and physiological demands in excess of that found in individual sport events of comparable duration. Consequently, there is a broad range of possible medical problems and complications that must be taken into account when preparing for such races. For most competitors, an Olympic-distance triathlon typically takes between 2-4 hours to complete. This race begins with a swimming segment of 1500 m. Given the wide variety of race venues found around the world, these swims occur in an assortment of water temperatures (from warm to cold) and conditions (from ocean surf to lake calm). Swimmers often exit the water in a state of moderate dehydration and hypothermia and then immediately start the 40 km cycling leg. Many do so in their swimming attire. A wide variety of road surfaces, technically challenging topography, variable environmental conditions and dramatically changing velocities can be encountered on the cycle course. The race concludes with a 10 km running leg. Since it is the final leg, it is often completed in higher ambient temperatures than those encountered at the start, with the athlete possibly running in a significant state of dehydration and fatigue. Other medical problems commonly encountered in triathlon include: muscle cramping, heat illness, postural hypotension, excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation, musculoskeletal injuries and trauma, gastrointestinal problems as well as post-race bacterial infection, immunosuppression, sympathetic nervous system and psychological exhaustion, and haemolysis. The rate of occurrence of such events and the severity of their potentially negative outcomes is a function of the methods used by both the race organisers and the competitors to prevent or respond to the conditions imposed by the race. Triathletes also commonly compete in both shorter 'sprint distance' events (in the range of a 0.75 km swim, 20 km cycle and 5 km run) and longer events including both one-half and full Ironman distances (2.5 and 3.8 km swim, 80 and 180 km cycle, 20 and 42 km run, respectively), as well as ultra-distance events that exceed the Ironman distance. In the longer events, the previously mentioned medical considerations are further magnified and additional considerations such as hyponatraemia can also occur. Reducing risk associated with these concerns is accomplished by: taking into account weather and water temperature/conditions data prior to event scheduling; effective swim, cycle and run course organisation and management; environmental monitoring prior to and during the event; the implementation of a water safety plan; provision of appropriate fluid replacement throughout the course; implementation of helmet use and non-drafting regulations in the cycling leg; and competitor knowledge regarding fluid replacement, biomechanical technique, physical preparation, safe equipment and course familiarity. Despite these concerns, triathlon participation appears to relatively safe for persons of all ages, assuming that high-risk adults undertake health screening.

The neuroendocrinology of chronic fatigue syndrome

Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is a common and disabling problem; although most likely of biopsychosocial origin, the nature of the pathophysiological components remains unclear. There has been a wealth of interest in the endocrinology of this condition, which will be reviewed in this article. Most studied has been the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis; although the quality of many studies is poor, the overall balance of evidence points to reduced cortisol output in at least some patients, with some evidence that this is linked to symptom production or persistence. There is evidence for heightened negative feedback and glucocorticoid receptor function and for impaired ACTH and cortisol responses to a variety of challenges. However, there is no evidence for a specific or uniform dysfunction of the HPA axis. Given the many factors that may impinge on the HPA axis in CFS, such as inactivity, sleep disturbance, psychiatric comorbidity, medication, and ongoing stress, it seems likely that HPA axis disturbance is heterogeneous and of multifactorial etiology in CFS. Studies assessing GH, dehydroepiandrostenedione and its sulfate, melatonin, leptin, and neuroendocrine-monoamine interactions are also reviewed. There is some evidence from these studies to suggest alterations of dehydroepiandrostenedione sulfate function and abnormal serotonin function in CFS, but whether these changes are of functional importance remains unclear. To obtain a clearer assessment of the etiological and pathophysiological relevance of endocrine changes in CFS, it is suggested that more prospective cohort studies be undertaken in groups at high risk for CFS, that patients with CFS are followed up into recovery, and that multidimensional assessments are undertaken to unravel the influence of the various confounding factors on the observed endocrine changes in CFS.

Reactivity and recovery from different types of work measured by catecholamines and cortisol: a systematic literature overview

OBJECTIVES

To review occupational health, laboratory, and sports literature on neuroendocrine reactivity and recovery from mental, combined mental and physical, or physical tasks.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was performed in eight databases. Studies with catecholamines or cortisol as effect variables measured in blood, urine, or saliva were included.

RESULTS

After application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 77 studies from the initial 559 identified were taken into account. In occupational settings it was found that relatively few studies were conclusive about recovery, which formed a contrast with sports research. For reactivity and recovery up to 1 hour after performing the task, half of the studies considered physical tasks and more than two thirds showed incomplete recovery compared with baseline excretion of catecholamines and cortisol. Recovery extending to 3 days after the task was performed was often incomplete for cortisol after combined mentally and physically demanding tasks, and less often after solely mental or physical tasks. This type of recovery was more often incomplete for adrenaline (epinephrine) than for noradrenaline (norepinephrine), which was the case after mental as well as combined mental and physical tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

The results from laboratory and sports research may be transferable to some occupations, but more research is needed on the course of recovery relative to health effects in occupational settings.

Impaired pituitary hormonal response to exhaustive exercise in overtrained endurance athletes

The aim of the present prospective longitudinal study was to investigate the hormonal response in overtrained athletes at rest and during exercise consisting of a short-term exhaustive endurance test on a cycle ergometer at an intensity 10% above the individual anaerobic threshold. Over a period of 19+/-1 months, 17 male endurance athletes (cyclists and triathletes; age 23.4+/-1.6 yr; VO2max. 61.2+/-1.8 mL x min(-1) x kg(-1); means+/-SEM) were examined five times on two separate days under standardized conditions. Short-term overtraining states (OT, N=15) were primarily induced by an increase of frequency of high-intensive bouts of exercise or competitions without increase of the total amount of training. OT was compared with normal training states intraindividually (NS, N=62). During OT, the time to exhaustion of the exercise test was significantly decreased by 27% on average. At rest and during exercise, the concentrations in plasma and the nocturnal excretion in urine of free epinephrine and norepinephrine were not significantly changed during OT. At physical rest, the concentrations of (free) testosterone, cortisol, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, growth hormone, and insulin during OT were comparable with those during NS. A significantly (P < 0.025) lower maximal exercise-induced increase of the adrenocorticotropic hormone and growth hormone, as well as a trend for a decrease of cortisol (P=0.060) and insulin (P=0.036), was measured. The response of free catecholamines as well as the ergometric performance of an all-out 30-s test was unchanged. Serum urea, uric acid, ferritin, and activity of creatine kinase showed no differences between conditions. In conclusion, the results confirm the hypothesis of a hypothalamo-pituitary dysregulation during OT expressed by an impaired response of pituitary hormones to exhaustive short-endurance exercise.