Evaporated Multilayer Dispersion Elements for Soft X-Rays

Nanomaterials by design: a review of nanoscale metallic multilayers

Nanoscale metallic multilayers have been shown to have a wide range of outstanding properties, which differ to a great extent from those observed in monolithic films. Their exceptional properties are mainly associated with the large number of interfaces and the nanoscale layer thicknesses. Many studies have investigated these materials focusing on magnetic, mechanical, optical, or radiation tolerance properties. Thus, this review provides a summary of the findings in each area, including a description of the general attributes, the adopted synthesis methods and most common characterization techniques used. This information is followed by a compendium of the material properties and a brief discussion of related experimental data, as well as existing and promising applications. Other phenomena of interest, including thermal stability studies, self-propagating reactions and the progression from nano multilayers to amorphous and/or crystalline alloys, are also covered. In general, this review highlights the use of nano multilayer architectures as viable routes to overcome the challenges of designing and implementing new engineering materials at the nanoscale.

Structure, stress and optical properties of Cr/C multilayers for the tender X-ray range

Cr/C multilayer optics are a suitable choice for the tender X-ray range (1-4 keV) that covers the K absorption edges of P, S, Cl and 3d transition metals as well as the L absorption edges of 4d transition metals. In particular, these optics are studied in order to optimize the optical properties of collimated plane-grating monochromators. In this paper, the structure, stress and optical properties of Cr/C multilayers (fabricated using direct-current magnetron sputtering) with bi-layer number of 20 and the same period (about 11.64 nm) but different Cr thickness ratio (0.20-0.80) are investigated. Firstly, the grazing-incidence X-ray reflectivity at 8.04 keV was measured. These measurements were fitted assuming a multilayer structure with a four-layer and non-periodic model. Results and fitting show that interface widths increase with the Cr thickness ratio. The results obtained from X-ray diffraction at 8.04 keV were consistent with high-resolution transmission electron microscopy which showed an increase in grain size of the Cr layers. In addition, the stresses of the Cr/C multilayers have been measured and the results show that the stress value approaches zero when the Cr thickness ratio is about 0.45. The reflectivity of a Cr/C multilayer with Cr thickness ratio of 0.37 was measured and reaches 26.6% at 1.04 keV. The measured reflectivity matches very well with the predicted value using the four-layer and non-periodic model, which confirmed the viability of the prediction. Thus, the reflectivity at 1.04 keV of a Cr/C multilayer with different Cr thickness ratio was predicted and was found to drastically decrease when the Cr thickness ratio is larger than 0.37. It has been determined that a Cr thickness ratio value of 0.37 is the best choice for a Cr/C multilayer in view of high reflectivity and low stress.

Highly efficient blazed grating with multilayer coating for tender X-ray energies

For photon energies of 1 - 5 keV, blazed gratings with multilayer coating are ideally suited for the suppression of stray and higher orders light in grating monochromators. We developed and characterized a blazed 2000 lines/mm grating coated with a 20 period Cr/C- multilayer. The multilayer d-spacing of 7.3 nm has been adapted to the line distance of 500 nm and the blaze angle of 0.84° in order to provide highest efficiency in the photon energy range between 1.5 keV and 3 keV. Efficiency of the multilayer grating as well as the reflectance of a witness multilayer which were coated simultaneously have been measured. An efficiency of 35% was measured at 2 keV while a maximum efficiency of 55% was achieved at 4 keV. In addition, a strong suppression of higher orders was observed which makes blazed multilayer gratings a favorable dispersing element also for the low X-ray energy range.

Kirkpatrick-Baez microscope based on a Bragg-Fresnel x-ray multilayer focusing system

We demonstrate how to use a cylindrical Bragg-Fresnel multilayer focusing system instead of spherical mirrors for two-dimensional focalization. We performed our tests at 8 keV with a collimated x-ray tube having an apparent anode source size of 75 microm x 100 microm. These tests demonstrate that focalization can be obtained within <20 microm. This offers new possibilities in optical systems for collimators and fine focusing of x-rays, especially for synchrotron radiation sources.

Absolute reflectivity measurements at 44.79 A of sputter deposited multilayer x-ray mirrors

Multilayer x-ray mirrors have been deposited using a dc triode sputtering system, which incorporates an accurate method of thickness monitoring based on the dependence of the deposition rate on the target current. Thickness can be controlled with an accuracy of better than 0.1 A. High efficiency W-C and Ni-C multilayer mirrors have been synthesized and tested at 1.54-A (CuKoalpha) and 44.79-A (CKalpha). Absolute reflectivity measurements at lambda = 44.79-A (CKalpha) have been carried out. In this case the incident beam is previously polarized by a premonochromator equipped with a pair of parallel-plane multilayer mirrors fixed at an angle close to the Brewster (theta ? 45 degrees ). Thus the measured reflectivities are not affected by a progressive variation of the P-component.

Tungsten-beryllium multilayer mirrors for soft x rays

Multilayer structures of tungsten and beryllium were synthesized onto flat silicon single-crystal substrates by the neutral atom beam sputtering technique. Structures of constituent tungsten and beryllium thin films were evaluated. The standard deviation of the interface roughness of the multilayer was estimated to be ~2.5 A. Reflectivities of multilayer mirrors were measured at a grazing incidence of 5.0 degrees . The observed reflectivity of 30% at 1055 eV was in good agreement with the calculated value considering the interface roughness and oxygen contamination for a tungsten-beryllium structure having a period of 77.0 A.

Comparative efficiency of natural crystals and multilayers as dispersing devices in the copper L(2,3) range

Recent sputtering techniques have been used to produce layered synthetic microstructures (LSMs) as dispersing devices for varied applications in x-ray optics and spectroscopy. These analyzers, specially suited for synchrotron radiation, have been mounted in a two-parallel crystal monochromator. In this paper we show the first experimental results obtained with beryl crystals and multilayers for analyzing x-ray spectral distributions transmitted through screens or reflected on mirrors of copper near the L(2) and L(3) absorption edges. The significance of these findings is discussed in terms of comparison with natural and synthetic crystals and of designing a useful dispersing device for x-ray spectroscopy.

Tunable Coherent X-rays

A modern 1- to 2-billion-electron-volt synchrotron radiation facility (based on high-brightness electron beams and magnetic undulators) would generate coherent (laser-like) soft x-rays of wavelengths as short as 10 angstroms. The radiation would also be broadly tunable and subject to full polarization control. Radiation with these properties could be used for phase- and element-sensitive microprobing of biological assemblies and material interfaces as well as reserch on the production of electronic microstructures with features smaller than 1000 angstroms. These short wavelength capabilities, which extend to the K-absorption edges of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, are neither available nor projected for laboratory XUV lasers. Higher energy storage rings (5 to 6 billion electron volts) would generate significantly less coherent radiation and would be further compromised by additional x-ray thermal loading of optical components.

Characterization of layered synthetic microstructure by transmission electron microscopy and diffraction

Transmission electron diffraction patterns related to the cross section of layered synthetic microstructures (LSM's) are obtained. By depositing the multilayers onto (111) orientation silicon single-crystal substrates, it is possible to obtain on the same plate both the LSM diffraction pattern and a calibrated one and thus to measure the LSM mean period accurately. Results concerning tungsten-carbon LSM's are presented.