Adsorption geometry, molecular interaction, and charge transfer of triphenylamine-based dye on rutile TiO2(110)

Arylenevinylene Oligomer-Based Heterostructures on Flexible AZO Electrodes

We investigated the optical and electrical properties of flexible single and bi-layer organic heterostructures prepared by vacuum evaporation with a p-type layer of arylenevinylene oligomers, based on carbazole, 3,3' bis(N hexylcarbazole)vinylbenzene = L13, or triphenylamine, 1,4 bis [4 (N,N' diphenylamino)phenylvinyl] benzene = L78, and an n-type layer of 5,10,15,20-tetra(4-pyrydil)21H,23H-porphyne = TPyP. Transparent conductor films of Al-doped ZnO (AZO) with high transparency, >90% for wavelengths > 400 nm, and low resistivity, between 6.9 × 10-4 Ω·cm and 23 × 10-4 Ω·cm, were deposited by pulsed laser deposition on flexible substrates of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The properties of the heterostructures based on oligomers and zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) were compared, emphasizing the effect of the surface morphology. The measurements revealed a good absorption in the visible range of the PET/AZO/arylenevinylene oligomer/TPyP heterostructures and a typical injection contact behavior with linear (ZnPc, L78) or non-linear (L13) J-V characteristics in the dark, at voltages < 0.4 V. The heterostructure PET/AZO/L78/TPyP/Al showed a current density of ~1 mA/cm2 at a voltage of 0.3 V. The correlation between the roughness exponent, evaluated from the height-height correlation function, grain shape, and electrical behavior was analyzed. Consequently, the oligomer based on triphenylamine could be a promising replacement of donor ZnPc in flexible electronic applications.

A soft x-ray probe of a titania photoelectrode sensitized with a triphenylamine dye

We present a thorough soft x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) study of a mesoporous titanium dioxide electrode sensitized with the dye 4-(diphenylamino)phenylcyanoacrylic acid, referred to as "L0." Supported by calculations, the suite of XPS, x-ray absorption spectroscopy, and resonant photoelectron spectroscopy allows us to examine bonding interactions between the dye and the surface and the frontier electronic structure at the molecule-oxide interface. While placing these measurements in the context of existing literature, this paper is intended as a useful reference for further studies of more complex triphenylamine based sensitizers.

Electrolyte/Dye/TiO2 Interfacial Structures of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Revealed by In Situ Neutron Reflectometry with Contrast Matching

The nature of an interfacial structure buried within a device assembly is often critical to its function. For example, the dye/TiO₂ interfacial structure that comprises the working electrode of a dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) governs its photovoltaic output. These structures have been determined outside of the DSC device, using ex situ characterization methods; yet, they really should be probed while held within a DSC since they are modulated by the device environment. Dye/TiO₂ structures will be particularly influenced by a layer of electrolyte ions that lies above the dye self-assembly. We show that electrolyte/dye/TiO₂ interfacial structures can be resolved using in situ neutron reflectometry with contrast matching. We find that electrolyte constituents ingress into the self-assembled monolayer of dye molecules that anchor onto TiO₂. Some dye/TiO₂ anchoring configurations are modulated by the formation of electrolyte/dye intermolecular interactions. These electrolyte-influencing structural changes will affect dye-regeneration and electron-injection DSC operational processes. This underpins the importance of this in situ structural determination of electrolyte/dye/TiO₂ interfaces within representative DSC device environments.

Supramolecular architectures of molecularly thin yet robust free-standing layers

Stable, single-nanometer thin, and free-standing two-dimensional layers with controlled molecular architectures are desired for several applications ranging from (opto-)electronic devices to nanoparticle and single-biomolecule characterization. It is, however, challenging to construct these stable single molecular layers via self-assembly, as the cohesion of those systems is ensured only by in-plane bonds. We herein demonstrate that relatively weak noncovalent bonds of limited directionality such as dipole-dipole (-CN⋅⋅⋅NC-) interactions act in a synergistic fashion to stabilize crystalline monomolecular layers of tetrafunctional calixarenes. The monolayers produced, demonstrated to be free-standing, display a well-defined atomic structure on the single-nanometer scale and are robust under a wide range of conditions including photon and electron radiation. This work opens up new avenues for the fabrication of robust, single-component, and free-standing layers via bottom-up self-assembly.

DyeTiO2 interfacial structure of dye-sensitised solar cell working electrodes buried under a solution of I-/I3- redox electrolyte

Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSCs) have niche prospects for electricity-generating windows that could equip buildings for energy-sustainable future cities. However, this 'smart window' technology is being held back by a lack of understanding in how the dye interacts with its device environment at the molecular level. A better appreciation of the dyeTiO₂ interfacial structure of the DSC working electrodes would be particularly valuable since associated structure-function relationships could be established; these rules would provide a 'toolkit' for the molecular engineering of more suitable DSC dyes via rational design. Previous materials characterisation efforts have been limited to determining this interfacial structure within an environment exposed to air or situated in a solvent medium. This study is the first to reveal the structure of this buried interface within the functional device environment, and represents the first application of in situ neutron reflectometry to DSC research. By incorporating the electrolyte into the structural model of this buried interface, we reveal how lithium cations from the electrolyte constituents influence the dyeTiO₂ binding configuration of an organic sensitiser, MK-44, via Li⁺ complexation to the cyanoacrylate group. This dye is the molecular congener of the high-performance MK-2 DSC dye, whose hexa-alkyl chains appear to stabilise it from Li⁺ complexation. Our in situ neutron reflectometry findings are built up from auxiliary structural models derived from ex situ X-ray reflectometry and corroborated via density functional theory and UV/vis absorption spectroscopy. Significant differences between the in situ and ex situ dyeTiO₂ interfacial structures are found, highlighting the need to characterise the molecular structure of DSC working electrodes while in a fully assembled device.

Discovery of S···C≡N Intramolecular Bonding in a Thiophenylcyanoacrylate-Based Dye: Realizing Charge Transfer Pathways and Dye···TiO2 Anchoring Characteristics for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Donor-π-acceptor dyes containing thiophenyl π-conjugated units and cyanoacrylate acceptor groups are among the best-performing organic chromophores used in dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) applications. Yet, the molecular origins of their high photovoltaic output have remained unclear until now. This synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction study elucidates these origins for the high-performance thiophenylcyanoacrylate-based dye MK-2 (7.7% DSC device efficiency) and its molecular building block, MK-44. The crystal structures of MK-2 and MK-44 are both determined, while a high-resolution charge-density mapping of the smaller molecule was also possible, enabling the nature of its bonding to be detailed. A strong S···C≡N intramolecular interaction is discovered, which bears a bond critical point, thus proving that this interaction should be formally classified as a chemical bond. A topological analysis of the π-conjugated portion of MK-44 shows that this S···C≡N bonding underpins the highly efficient intramolecular charge transfer (ICT) in thiophenylcyanoacrylate dyes. This manifests as two bipartite ICT pathways bearing carboxylate and nitrile end points. In turn, these pathways dictate a preferred COO/CN anchoring mode for the dye as it adsorbs onto TiO₂ surfaces, to form the dye···TiO₂ interface that constitutes the DSC working electrode. These results corroborate a recent proposal that all cyanoacrylate groups anchor onto TiO₂ in this COO/CN binding configuration. Conformational analysis of the MK-44 and MK-2 crystal structures reveals that this S···C≡N bonding will persist in MK-2. Accordingly, this newly discovered bond affords a rational explanation for the attractive photovoltaic properties of MK-2. More generally, this study provides the first unequivocal evidence for an S···C≡N interaction, confirming previous speculative assignments of such interactions in other compounds.

Discovery of Black Dye Crystal Structure Polymorphs: Implications for Dye Conformational Variation in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

We present the discovery of a new crystal structure polymorph (1) and pseudopolymorph (2) of the Black Dye, one of the world's leading dyes for dye-sensitized solar cells, DSSCs (10.4% device performance efficiency). This reveals that Black Dye molecules can adopt multiple low-energy conformers. This is significant since it challenges existing models of the Black Dye···TiO2 adsorption process that renders a DSSC working electrode; these have assumed a single molecular conformation that refers to the previously reported Black Dye crystal structure (3). The marked structural differences observed between 1, 2, and 3 make the need for modeling multiple conformations more acute. Additionally, the ordered form of the Black Dye (1) provides a more appropriate depiction of its anionic structure, especially regarding its anchoring group and NCS bonding descriptions. The tendency toward NCS ligand isomerism, evidenced via the disordered form 2, has consequences for electron injection and electron recombination in Black Dye embedded DSSC devices. Dyes 2 and 3 differ primarily by the absence or presence of a solvent of crystallization, respectively; solvent environment effects on the dye are thereby elucidated. This discovery of multiple Black Dye conformers from diffraction, with atomic-level definition, complements recently reported nanoscopic evidence for multiple dye conformations existing at a dye···TiO2 interface, for a chemically similar DSSC dye; those results emanated from imaging and spectroscopy, but were unresolved at the submolecular level. Taken together, these findings lead to the general notion that multiple dye conformations should be explicitly considered when modeling dye···TiO2 interfaces in DSSCs, at least for ruthenium-based dye complexes.

In Situ Mapping of the Molecular Arrangement of Amphiphilic Dye Molecules at the TiO₂ Surface of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells

Amphiphilic sensitizers are central to the function of dye-sensitized solar cells. It is known that the cell's performance depends on the molecular arrangement and the density of the dye on the semiconductor surface, but a molecular-level picture of the cell-electrolyte interface is still lacking. Here, we present subnanometer in situ atomic force microscopy images of the Z907 dye at the surface of TiO2 in a relevant liquid. Our results reveal changes in the conformation and the lateral arrangement of the dye molecules, depending on their average packing density on the surface. Complementary quantitative measurements on the ensemble of the film are obtained by the quartz-crystal microbalance with dissipation technique. An atomistic picture of the dye coverage-dependent packing, the effectiveness of the hydrophobic alkyl chains as blocking layer, and the solvent accessibility is obtained from molecular dynamics simulations.

Identification of the dye adsorption modes in dye-sensitised solar cells with X-ray spectroscopy techniques: a computational study

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of O 1s is shown to be the most reliable technique in assessing adsorption geometry of dye molecules in a dye-sensitised solar cell.

Electronic structures of bare and terephthalic acid adsorbed TiO2(110)-(1 × 2) reconstructed surfaces: origin and reactivity of the band gap states

Ti₂O₃-row contributed band gap states are sensitive to TPA adsorption, resulting in the redistribution of Ti 3d states at the interface.

Precise identification and manipulation of adsorption geometry of donor-π-acceptor dye on nanocrystalline TiO₂ films for improved photovoltaics

Adsorption geometry of dye molecules on nanocrystalline TiO2 plays a central role in dye-sensitized solar cells, enabling effective sunlight absorption, fast electron injection, optimized interface band offsets, and stable photovoltaic performance. However, precise determination of dye binding geometry and proportion has been challenging due to complexity and sensitivity at interfaces. Here employing combined vibrational spectrometry and density functional calculations, we identify typical adsorption configurations of widely adopted cyanoacrylic donor-π bridge-acceptor dyes on nanocrystalline TiO2. Binding mode switching from bidentate bridging to hydrogen-bonded monodentate configuration with Ti-N bonding has been observed when dye-sensitizing solution becomes more basic. Raman and infrared spectroscopy measurements confirm this configuration switch and determine quantitatively the proportion of competing binding geometries, with vibration peaks assigned using density functional theory calculations. We further found that the proportion of dye-binding configurations can be manipulated by adjusting pH value of dye-sensitizing solutions. Controlling molecular adsorption density and configurations led to enhanced energy conversion efficiency from 2.4% to 6.1% for the fabricated dye-sensitized solar cells, providing a simple method to improve photovoltaic performance by suppressing unfavorable binding configurations in solar cell applications.

Quantitative femtosecond charge transfer dynamics at organic/electrode interfaces studied by core-hole clock spectroscopy

Organic semiconductor materials have important applications in organic electronics and other novel hybrid devices. In these devices, the transport of charge carriers across the interfaces between organic molecules and electrodes plays an important role in determining the device performance. Charge transfer dynamics at the organic/electrode interface usually occurs at the several femtoseconds timescale, and quantitative charge transfer dynamics data can been inferred using synchrotron-based core-hole clock (CHC) spectroscopy. In this research news, we have reviewed recent progress in the applications of CHC spectroscopy on the quantitative characterization of charge transfer dynamics at organic/electrode interfaces. By examining charge transfer dynamics at different types of interface, from weakly interacting van der Waals-type interfaces to interfaces with strong covalent bonds, we discuss a few factors that have been found to affect the charge transfer dynamics. We also review the application of CHC spectroscopy to quantify through-bonds and through-space charge transport in organic molecules.