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Stenhouse C, Bazer FW, Ashworth CJ. Sexual dimorphism in placental development and function: Comparative physiology with an emphasis on the pig. Mol Reprod Dev 2023; 90:684-696. [PMID: 35466463 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.23573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Across mammalian species, it has been demonstrated that sex influences birth weight, with males being heavier than females; a characteristic that can be observed from early gestation. Male piglets are more likely to be stillborn and have greater preweaning mortality than their female littermates, despite the additional maternal investment into male fetal growth. Given the conserved nature of the genome between the sexes, it is hypothesized that these developmental differences between males and females are most likely orchestrated by differential placental adaptation. This review summarizes the current understanding of fetal sex-specific differences in placental and endometrial structure and function, with an emphasis on pathways found to be differentially regulated in the pig including angiogenesis, apoptosis, and proliferation. Given the importance of piglet sex in agricultural enterprises, and the potential for skewed litter sex ratios, it is imperative to improve understanding of the relationship between fetal sex and molecular signaling in both the placenta and endometria across gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Fuller W Bazer
- Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Stenhouse C, Hurst E, Mellanby RJ, Ashworth CJ. Associations between maternal vitamin D status and porcine litter characteristics throughout gestation. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2022; 13:106. [PMID: 36123748 PMCID: PMC9487113 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-022-00760-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests an important role of vitamin D in the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy, and the regulation of foetal growth across mammalian species. However, the temporal changes in maternal vitamin D status throughout gestation in the pig and the relationship between maternal vitamin D status and litter characteristics of interest across gestation remain poorly understood and under-investigated. The abundance of 25(OH)D in maternal plasma was quantified by HPLC–MS/MS at gestational days (GD) 18, 30, 45, 60 and 90 (n = 5–11 gilts/GD). Maternal plasma 25(OH)D concentrations significantly increased between GD18 and GD30 (P < 0.05). The relationship between maternal vitamin D metabolite concentrations and litter characteristics of interest including gilt weight, ovulation rate, mean litter weight, number of live foetuses, percentage prenatal survival, and sex ratio of the litter was assessed. Maternal 25(OH)D (P = 0.059) concentrations tended to be positively associated with percentage prenatal survival on GD60. On GD90, maternal 25(OH)D (P < 0.05) concentrations were inversely associated with gilt weight. Maternal plasma 25(OH)D concentrations were inversely associated with the percentage of male foetuses in the litter on GD90 (P < 0.05). This study has provided novel insights into temporal changes in maternal vitamin D status throughout gestation and the relationship between maternal vitamin D status and the economically important litter characteristics of gilt weight, percentage prenatal survival and percentage of male foetuses in the litter. Improving the understanding of the role of vitamin D across important developmental timepoints in relation to foetal growth is essential to improve reproductive success in livestock species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK. .,Current Affiliation, Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843-2471, USA.
| | - Emma Hurst
- Clinical Sciences Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Richard J Mellanby
- Clinical Sciences Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
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Ruiz S, Gardón JC, Hernández-Caravaca I, Luongo C, García-Vázquez FA. Analysis of Uterine Blood Flow in Breeding Sows through the Estrus and Early Diestrus, and after Artificial Insemination. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9060260. [PMID: 35737312 PMCID: PMC9228517 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9060260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 05/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine uterine blood flow indices by transabdominal Doppler ultrasound in sows (n = 18) under different conditions: (i) sows after estrus detection (day 0, D0); (ii) sows 2 h after artificial insemination (AI), performed 24 h after detection of estrus (day 1, D1); (iii) sows in early diestrus (day 5, D5). Moreover, three different types of seminal doses were used for AI depending on the ejaculate fraction included (F1: doses containing only the rich fraction of the ejaculate; F2: F1 + the transition fraction between rich and poor fractions; F3: F2 and poor fraction). The statistical analysis revealed significant differences in some indices regarding the period of analysis (D0, D1, and D5). Diastolic velocity and mean velocity showed lower values at D5 in comparison with D0 and D1 (p < 0.01). On the other hand, the pulsatility index and the relationship systolic velocity/diastolic velocity indicated higher values at D5 in comparison with D0 and D1 (p < 0.01). No differences were observed regarding the type of seminal dose used in any of the time points analyzed (p > 0.05). Neither insemination per se nor the type of ejaculate fraction used immediately modified the uterine vascularity, but some indices are affected by the stage of the estrus cycle (estrus vs. early diestrus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvador Ruiz
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Mare Nostrum Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (S.R.); (C.L.)
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria Hospital Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIB-Virgen de la Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain;
| | - Juan Carlos Gardón
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary and Experimental Sciences, Catholic University of Valencia-San Vicente Mártir, Guillem de Castro 106, 46003 Valencia, Spain;
| | - Iván Hernández-Caravaca
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria Hospital Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIB-Virgen de la Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain;
- Departamento de Enfermería Comunitaria, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública e Historia de la Ciencia, Facultad Ciencias de la Salud, Campus de Sant Vicent del Raspeig, E-03080 Sant Vicent del Raspeig, Spain
| | - Chiara Luongo
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Mare Nostrum Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (S.R.); (C.L.)
| | - Francisco Alberto García-Vázquez
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus de Excelencia Mare Nostrum Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain; (S.R.); (C.L.)
- Instituto Murciano de Investigación Biosanitaria Hospital Virgen de la Arrixaca (IMIB-Virgen de la Arrixaca), 30120 Murcia, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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Stenhouse C, Cortes-Araya Y, Donadeu FX, Ashworth CJ. Associations between testicular development and fetal size in the pig. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2022; 13:24. [PMID: 35287733 PMCID: PMC8922848 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-022-00678-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Impaired reproductive performance is the largest contributing factor for the removal of boars from commercial systems. Intrauterine growth restricted piglets represent 25% of the total number of piglets born and have impaired reproductive performance. This study aimed to improve the understanding of temporal changes in testicular gene expression during testes development in fetuses of different size. The lightest and closest to mean litter weight (CTMLW) male Large White × Landrace littermates were collected at gestational days (GD) 45, 60 and 90 (n = 5–6 litters/GD). Results Testes weight and testes weight as a percentage of fetal weight were not associated with fetal size at GD60 or 90. Fetal plasma testosterone was not associated with fetal size at GD90. There was no association between fetal size and seminiferous tubule area and number, number of germ or Sertoli cells per tubule. The lightest fetuses tended to have wider seminiferous tubules compared to the CTMLW fetuses at GD90 (P = 0.077). The testicular expression of KI67 (P ≤ 0.01) and BAX:BCL2 ratio (P = 0.058) mRNAs decreased as gestation progressed. Greater SPP1 mRNA expression was observed at GD60 when compared with GD45 and 90 (P ≤ 0.05). Lower expression of DMRT1 and SPP1 (P < 0.01) mRNAs was observed in testes associated with the lightest fetuses compared to the CTMLW fetuses at GD90. Conclusions These findings provide novel insights into the expression profiles of genes associated with testicular development and function. Further, these data suggest that programming of reproductive potential in IUGR boars occurs late in gestation, providing a platform for further mechanistic investigation. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40104-022-00678-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK. .,Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, 440 Kleberg Center, College Station, TX, 77843-2471, USA.
| | - Yennifer Cortes-Araya
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - F Xavier Donadeu
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Stenhouse C, Hogg CO, Ashworth CJ. Novel relationships between porcine fetal size, sex, and endometrial angiogenesis†. Biol Reprod 2020; 101:112-125. [PMID: 31093645 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioz068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
It is hypothesized that growth restriction occurs due to inadequate vascularization of the feto-maternal interface. Evidence exists for sexual dimorphism in placental function although associations between fetal sex and the endometrium remain poorly investigated. This study investigated the relationship between porcine fetal size, sex and endometrial angiogenesis at multiple gestational days (GD). Endometrial samples supplying the lightest and closest to mean litter weight (CTMLW), male and female Large White X Landrace conceptuses or fetuses were obtained at GD18, 30, 45, 60, and 90 (n = 5-9 litters/GD). Immunohistochemistry for CD31 revealed a greater number of blood vessels in endometrium supplying females compared to those supplying males at GD45. Endometrial samples supplying the lightest fetuses had fewer blood vessels (GD60) and uterine glands (GD90) compared to those supplying the CTMLW fetuses. Quantitative PCR revealed decreased CD31 (GD60), HPSE and VEGFA (GD90) expression, alongside increased HIF1A (GD45) expression in endometrial samples supplying the lightest compared to the CTMLW fetuses. At GD30, PTGFR, CD31, and VEGFA mRNA expression was increased in samples supplying female fetuses compared to those supplying male fetuses. Intriguingly, decreased expression of ACP5, CD31, HIF1A, and VEGFA mRNAs was observed at GD60 in endometrial samples supplying female fetuses compared to those supplying their male littermates. Endothelial cell branching assays demonstrated impaired endothelial cell branching in response to conditioned media from endometrial samples supplying the lightest and female fetuses compared with the CTMLW and male fetuses, respectively. This study has highlighted that endometrial tissues supplying the lightest and female fetuses have impaired angiogenesis when compared with the CTMLW and female fetuses respectively. Importantly, the relationship between fetal size, sex and endometrial vascularity is dynamic and dependent upon the GD investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Charis O Hogg
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Stenhouse C, Hogg CO, Ashworth CJ. Identification of appropriate reference genes for qPCR analyses of porcine placentae and endometria, supplying foetuses of different size and sex, at multiple gestational days. Reprod Domest Anim 2020; 55:785-794. [PMID: 32297689 DOI: 10.1111/rda.13685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies suggest associations exist between foetal size and sex, and gene expression at the porcine feto-maternal interface. It is essential to identify reference genes which have stable expression throughout gestation in feto-placental units associated with foetuses of different size and sex. qPCR was performed for 11 genes within porcine placentae and endometria at gestational days (GD) 30, 60 and 90. Several reference genes were found to have stable expression in these samples. The combination of B2m1 and Tbp1, and Hprt1 and Tbp1 had the most stable expression in endometria and placentae, respectively. Reference genes identified as having stable expression were utilized in a larger experiment with placentae and endometria associated with foetuses of different size and sex at four GD. The average expression of B2m1 and Tbp1 mRNAs was suitable for the normalization of temporal changes in endometria, and comparison between endometria supplying foetuses of different size throughout gestation. The average expression of Hprt1 and Tbp1 mRNAs was suitable for the normalization of placental mRNA expression for comparison of temporal changes and sex differences between placentae supplying foetuses of different sex throughout gestation. This combination was suitable for the normalization of mRNA expression in placentas supplying GD30, GD60 and GD90 foetuses of different size. This study has identified reference genes with stable expression in placentae and endometria across multiple gestational days, in tissues associated with foetuses of different size and sex. The results of these experiments highlight the importance of selecting appropriate reference genes for the biological comparison under investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Charis O Hogg
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Functional Genetics and Development Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Stenhouse C, Hogg CO, Ashworth CJ. Association of foetal size and sex with porcine foeto-maternal interface integrin expression. Reproduction 2019; 157:317-328. [PMID: 30650060 PMCID: PMC6391912 DOI: 10.1530/rep-18-0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Integrins regulate adhesion at the foeto-maternal interface by interacting with secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1) and fibronectin (FN). It is hypothesised that impaired foetal growth of ‘runt’ piglets is linked to altered integrin signalling at the foeto-maternal interface. Placental and endometrial samples associated with the lightest and closest to mean litter weight (CTMLW) (gestational day (GD18, 30, 45, 60 and 90), of both sex (GD30, 45, 60 and 90) (n = 5–8 litters/GD), Large White × Landrace conceptuses or foetuses were obtained. The mRNA expression of the integrin subunits (ITG) ITGA2, ITGAV, ITGB1, ITGB3, ITGB5, ITGB6, ITGB8, SPP1 and FN was quantified by qPCR. Temporal changes in mRNA expression were observed, with different profiles in the two tissues. Endometrial ITGB1 (P ≤ 0.05, GD45) and SPP1 (P ≤ 0.05, all GD combined and GD60) expression was decreased in samples supplying the lightest compared to the CTMLW foetuses. Placentas supplying female foetuses had decreased expression of ITGB6 (GD45, P ≤ 0.05) and FN (GD90, P ≤ 0.05) compared to those supplying male foetuses. Endometrial samples supplying females had increased ITGB3 (P ≤ 0.05, GD60) and FN (P ≤ 0.05, GD30) expression and decreased SPP1 (P ≤ 0.05, GD60) expression compared to male foetuses. Correlations between mean within-gilt mRNA expression and percentage prenatal survival, number of live foetuses or conceptuses and percentage male foetuses were observed. This study has highlighted novel and dynamic associations between foetal size, sex and integrin subunit mRNA expression at the porcine foeto-maternal interface. Further studies should be performed to improve the understanding of the mechanisms behind these novel findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Charis O Hogg
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Stenhouse C, Hogg CO, Ashworth CJ. Associations between fetal size, sex and placental angiogenesis in the pig. Biol Reprod 2019; 100:239-252. [PMID: 30137229 PMCID: PMC6335214 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioy184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Inadequate fetal growth cannot be remedied postnatally, leading to severe consequences for neonatal and adult development. It is hypothesized that growth restriction occurs due to inadequate placental vascularization. This study investigated the relationship between porcine fetal size, sex, and placental angiogenesis at multiple gestational days (GD). Placental samples supplying the lightest and closest to mean litter weight (CTMLW), male and female Large White X Landrace fetuses were obtained at GD30, 45, 60, and 90. Immunohistochemistry revealed increased chorioallantoic membrane CD31 staining in placentas supplying the lightest compared to those supplying the CTMLW fetuses at GD60. At GD90, placentas supplying the lightest fetuses had decreased CD31 staining in the chorioallantoic membrane compared to those supplying the CTMLW fetuses. The mRNA expression of six candidate genes with central roles at the feto-maternal interface increased with advancing gestation. At GD60, ACP5 expression was increased in placentas supplying the lightest compared to the CTMLW fetuses. At GD45, CD31 expression was decreased in placentas supplying the lightest compared to the CTMLW fetuses. In contrast, CD31 expression was increased in placentas supplying the lightest compared the CTMLW fetuses at GD60. In vitro endothelial cell branching assays demonstrated that placentas supplying the lightest and male fetuses impaired endothelial cell branching compared to placentas from the CTMLW (GD45 and 60) and female fetuses (GD60), respectively. This study has highlighted that placentas supplying the lightest and male fetuses have impaired angiogenesis. Importantly, the relationship between fetal size, sex, and placental vascularity is dynamic and dependent upon the GD investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Charis O Hogg
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, UK
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Stenhouse C, Hogg CO, Ashworth CJ. Associations between fetal size, sex and both proliferation and apoptosis at the porcine feto-maternal interface. Placenta 2018; 70:15-24. [PMID: 30316322 PMCID: PMC6215148 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2018] [Revised: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Inadequate fetal growth has severe consequences for both neonatal and adult development. It is hypothesised that the feto-maternal interface associated with the lightest and male fetuses will undergo more apoptosis and less proliferation than those supplying the closest to mean litter weight (CTMLW) and female fetuses respectively. Methods Placental and endometrial samples associated with the lightest and CTMLW (gestational day (GD) 18 and 30), male and female (GD45, 60 and 90) Large White X Landrace conceptuses or fetuses were obtained. The mRNA expression of candidate genes involved in apoptosis or proliferation (BAX, BCL2, P53 and KI67) was quantified by qPCR. TUNEL staining was performed on placental samples supplying the lightest and CTMLW fetuses (GD45 and 60), of both sex (GD60). Results Placentas associated with the lightest fetuses had decreased P53 and KI67 expression compared to the CTMLW fetuses at GD45. At GD60, P53 expression was increased in placentas supplying the lightest compared to CTMLW fetuses. P53 expression was increased in endometrial samples associated with the lightest compared to the CTMLW fetuses at GD45. At GD30 and GD60 respectively, BAX expression was increased and BCL2, P53 and KI67 expression were decreased in endometrial samples associated with females compared to their male littermates. TUNEL staining revealed no association between fetal size or sex, and apoptotic cell number. Discussion This study has highlighted dynamic associations between fetal size, sex, and apoptosis and proliferation at the porcine feto-maternal interface. Further studies should be performed to improve the understanding of the mechanisms behind these findings. Gestational day influence feto-maternal interface apoptotic mRNA expression. Fetal size is associated with feto-maternal interface apoptotic mRNA expression. Sexual dimorphism exists in feto-maternal interface apoptotic mRNA expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Stenhouse
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Charis O Hogg
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Cheryl J Ashworth
- Developmental Biology Division, The Roslin Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
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