Properties of the human Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS helicase complex and its action with DNA polymerase epsilon in rolling circle DNA synthesis

A conserved phosphorylation mechanism for regulating the interaction between the CMG replicative helicase and its forked DNA substrate

The CMG helicase is a crucial enzyme complex that plays a vital role in the replication of genomic DNA in eukaryotes. Besides unwinding the DNA template and coordinating the replisome's structure, it is also a key target for signaling pathways that regulate the replication process. We show that a specific serine/threonine residue in the MCM3 subunit of CMG, which has been previously linked to phosphorylation-dependent control mechanisms of genomic DNA replication in human cells, is a conserved phosphorylation site for Chk1 and potentially other protein kinases. This suggests a conserved regulatory mechanism associated with it in metazoans and several other eukaryotes, including budding yeast. Our in vitro analysis links this mechanism directly to the modulation of the CMG helicase activity by impacting its interactions with the forked DNA substrate. Further supporting its conserved role in regulation, we found that phosphomimetic substitution with aspartic acid and alanine knockout of this conserved residue lead to opposite phenotypic defects in the growth of budding yeast cells. These findings outline a candidate conserved phosphorylation pathway for regulating genomic DNA replication in eukaryotes, which adjusts the interactions between the replicative helicase complex and its DNA substrate according to the specific needs of various physiological conditions.

DNA nicks in both leading and lagging strand templates can trigger break-induced replication

Encounters between replication forks and unrepaired DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs) can generate both single-ended and double-ended double-strand breaks (seDSBs and deDSBs). seDSBs can be repaired by break-induced replication (BIR), which is a highly mutagenic pathway that is thought to be responsible for many of the mutations and genome rearrangements that drive cancer development. However, the frequency of BIR's deployment and its ability to be triggered by both leading and lagging template strand SSBs were unclear. Using site- and strand-specific SSBs generated by nicking enzymes, including CRISPR-Cas9 nickase (Cas9n), we demonstrate that leading and lagging template strand SSBs in fission yeast are typically converted into deDSBs that are repaired by homologous recombination. However, both types of SSBs can also trigger BIR, and the frequency of these events increases when fork convergence is delayed and the non-homologous end joining protein Ku70 is deleted.

Two-ended recombination at a Flp-nickase-broken replication fork

Replication fork collision with a DNA nick can generate a one-ended break, fostering genomic instability. The opposing fork's collision with the nick could form a second DNA end, enabling conservative repair by homologous recombination (HR). To study mechanisms of nickase-induced HR, we developed the Flp recombinase "step arrest" nickase in mammalian cells. A Flp-nick induces two-ended, BRCA2/RAD51-dependent short tract gene conversion (STGC), BRCA2/RAD51-independent long tract gene conversion, and discoordinated two-ended invasions. HR pathways induced by a replication-independent break and the Flp-nickase differ in their dependence on BRCA1, MRE11, and CtIP. To determine the origin of the second DNA end during Flp-nickase-induced STGC, we blocked the opposing fork using a Tus/Ter replication fork barrier (RFB). Flp-nickase-induced STGC remained robust and two ended. Thus, a single replication fork's collision with a Flp-nick triggers two-ended HR, possibly reflecting replicative bypass of lagging strand nicks. This response may limit genomic instability during replication of nicked DNA.

Identification of ATP-Competitive Human CMG Helicase Inhibitors for Cancer Intervention that Disrupt CMG-Replisome Function

The human CMG helicase (Cdc45-MCM-GINS) is a novel target for anticancer therapy. Tumor-specific weaknesses in the CMG are caused by oncogene-driven changes that adversely affect CMG function, and CMG activity is required for recovery from replicative stresses such as chemotherapy. Herein, we developed an orthogonal biochemical screening approach and identified CMG inhibitors (CMGi) that inhibit ATPase and helicase activities in an ATP-competitive manner at low micromolar concentrations. Structure-activity information, in silico docking, and testing with synthetic chemical compounds indicate that CMGi require specific chemical elements and occupy ATP-binding sites and channels within minichromosome maintenance (MCM) subunits leading to the ATP clefts, which are likely used for ATP/ADP ingress or egress. CMGi are therefore MCM complex inhibitors (MCMi). Biologic testing shows that CMGi/MCMi inhibit cell growth and DNA replication using multiple molecular mechanisms distinct from other chemotherapy agents. CMGi/MCMi block helicase assembly steps that require ATP binding/hydrolysis by the MCM complex, specifically MCM ring assembly on DNA and GINS recruitment to DNA-loaded MCM hexamers. During the S-phase, inhibition of MCM ATP binding/hydrolysis by CMGi/MCMi causes a "reverse allosteric" dissociation of Cdc45/GINS from the CMG that destabilizes replisome components Ctf4, Mcm10, and DNA polymerase-α, -δ, and -ε, resulting in DNA damage. CMGi/MCMi display selective toxicity toward multiple solid tumor cell types with K-Ras mutations, targeting the CMG and inducing DNA damage, Parp cleavage, and loss of viability. This new class of CMGi/MCMi provides a basis for small chemical development of CMG helicase-targeted anticancer compounds with distinct mechanisms of action.

One-ended and two-ended breaks at nickase-broken replication forks

Replisome collision with a nicked parental DNA template can lead to the formation of a replication-associated double strand break (DSB). How this break is repaired has implications for cancer initiation, cancer therapy and therapeutic gene editing. Recent work shows that collision of a replisome with a nicked DNA template can give rise to either a single-ended (se) or a double-ended (de)DSB, with potentially divergent effects on repair pathway choice and genomic instability. Emerging evidence suggests that the biochemical environment of the broken mammalian replication fork may be specialized in such a way as to skew repair in favor of homologous recombination at the expense of non-homologous end joining.

Exploring the Blood Biomarkers and Potential Therapeutic Agents for Human Acute Mountain Sickness Based on Transcriptomic Analysis, Inflammatory Infiltrates and Molecular Docking

A high-altitude, low-pressure hypoxic environment has severe effects on the health and work efficiency of its residents, and inadequate preventive measures and adaptive training may lead to the occurrence of AMS. Acute exposure to hypoxia conditions can have a less-favorable physiological effect on the human immune system. However, the regulation of the immune system in high-altitude environments is extremely complex and remains elusive. This study integrated system bioinformatics methods to screen for changes in immune cell subtypes and their associated targets. It also sought potential therapeutically effective natural compound candidates. The present study observed that monocytes, M1 macrophages and NK cells play a crucial role in the inflammatory response in AMS. IL15RA, CD5, TNFSF13B, IL21R, JAK2 and CXCR3 were identified as hub genes, and JAK2 was positively correlated with monocytes; TNFSF13B was positively correlated with NK cells. The natural compound monomers of jasminoidin and isoliquiritigenin exhibited good binding affinity with JAK2, while dicumarol and artemotil exhibited good binding affinity with TNFSF13B, and all are expected to become a potential therapeutic agents.

Bulk synthesis and beyond: The roles of eukaryotic replicative DNA polymerases

An organism's genomic DNA must be accurately duplicated during each cell cycle. DNA synthesis is catalysed by DNA polymerase enzymes, which extend nucleotide polymers in a 5' to 3' direction. This inherent directionality necessitates that one strand is synthesised forwards (leading), while the other is synthesised backwards discontinuously (lagging) to couple synthesis to the unwinding of duplex DNA. Eukaryotic cells possess many diverse polymerases that coordinate to replicate DNA, with the three main replicative polymerases being Pol α, Pol δ and Pol ε. Studies conducted in yeasts and human cells utilising mutant polymerases that incorporate molecular signatures into nascent DNA implicate Pol ε in leading strand synthesis and Pol α and Pol δ in lagging strand replication. Recent structural insights have revealed how the spatial organization of these enzymes around the core helicase facilitates their strand-specific roles. However, various challenging situations during replication require flexibility in the usage of these enzymes, such as during replication initiation or encounters with replication-blocking adducts. This review summarises the roles of the replicative polymerases in bulk DNA replication and explores their flexible and dynamic deployment to complete genome replication. We also examine how polymerase usage patterns can inform our understanding of global replication dynamics by revealing replication fork directionality to identify regions of replication initiation and termination.

Single-molecule characterization of SV40 replisome and novel factors: human FPC and Mcm10

The simian virus 40 (SV40) replisome only encodes for its helicase; large T-antigen (L-Tag), while relying on the host for the remaining proteins, making it an intriguing model system. Despite being one of the earliest reconstituted eukaryotic systems, the interactions coordinating its activities and the identification of new factors remain largely unexplored. Herein, we in vitro reconstituted the SV40 replisome activities at the single-molecule level, including DNA unwinding by L-Tag and the single-stranded DNA-binding protein Replication Protein A (RPA), primer extension by DNA polymerase δ, and their concerted leading-strand synthesis. We show that RPA stimulates the processivity of L-Tag without altering its rate and that DNA polymerase δ forms a stable complex with L-Tag during leading-strand synthesis. Furthermore, similar to human and budding yeast Cdc45-MCM-GINS helicase, L-Tag uses the fork protection complex (FPC) and the mini-chromosome maintenance protein 10 (Mcm10) during synthesis. Hereby, we demonstrate that FPC increases this rate, and both FPC and Mcm10 increase the processivity by stabilizing stalled replisomes and increasing their chances of restarting synthesis. The detailed kinetics and novel factors of the SV40 replisome establish it as a closer mimic of the host replisome and expand its application as a model replication system.

Assembly, Activation, and Helicase Actions of MCM2-7: Transition from Inactive MCM2-7 Double Hexamers to Active Replication Forks

In this review, we summarize the processes of the assembly of multi-protein replisomes at the origins of replication. Replication licensing, the loading of inactive minichromosome maintenance double hexamers (dhMCM2-7) during the G1 phase, is followed by origin firing triggered by two serine-threonine kinases, Cdc7 (DDK) and CDK, leading to the assembly and activation of Cdc45/MCM2-7/GINS (CMG) helicases at the entry into the S phase and the formation of replisomes for bidirectional DNA synthesis. Biochemical and structural analyses of the recruitment of initiation or firing factors to the dhMCM2-7 for the formation of an active helicase and those of origin melting and DNA unwinding support the steric exclusion unwinding model of the CMG helicase.

Replisome Proximal Protein Associations and Dynamic Proteomic Changes at Stalled Replication Forks

DNA replication is a fundamental cellular process that ensures the transfer of genetic information during cell division. Genome duplication takes place in S phase and requires a dynamic and highly coordinated recruitment of multiple proteins at replication forks. Various genotoxic stressors lead to fork instability and collapse, hence the need for DNA repair pathways. By identifying the multitude of protein interactions implicated in those events, we can better grasp the complex and dynamic molecular mechanisms that facilitate DNA replication and repair. Proximity-dependent biotin identification was used to identify associations with 17 proteins within four core replication components, namely the CDC45/MCM2-7/GINS helicase that unwinds DNA, the DNA polymerases, replication protein A subunits, and histone chaperones needed to disassemble and reassemble chromatin. We further investigated the impact of genotoxic stress on these interactions. This analysis revealed a vast proximity association network with 108 nuclear proteins further modulated in the presence of hydroxyurea; 45 being enriched and 63 depleted. Interestingly, hydroxyurea treatment also caused a redistribution of associations with 11 interactors, meaning that the replisome is dynamically reorganized when stressed. The analysis identified several poorly characterized proteins, thereby uncovering new putative players in the cellular response to DNA replication arrest. It also provides a new comprehensive proteomic framework to understand how cells respond to obstacles during DNA replication.

Unwinding Helicase MCM Functionality for Diagnosis and Therapeutics of Replication Abnormalities Associated with Cancer: A Review

The minichromosome maintenance (MCM) protein is a component of an active helicase that is essential for the initiation of DNA replication. Dysregulation of MCM functions contribute to abnormal cell proliferation and genomic instability. The interactions of MCM with cellular factors, including Cdc45 and GINS, determine the formation of active helicase and functioning of helicase. The functioning of MCM determines the fate of DNA replication and, thus, genomic integrity. This complex is upregulated in precancerous cells and can act as an important tool for diagnostic applications. The MCM protein complex can be an important broad-spectrum therapeutic target in various cancers. Investigations have supported the potential and applications of MCM in cancer diagnosis and its therapeutics. In this article, we discuss the physiological roles of MCM and its associated factors in DNA replication and cancer pathogenesis.

Two-ended recombination at a Flp-nickase-broken replication fork

Collision of a replication fork with a DNA nick is thought to generate a one-ended break, fostering genomic instability. Collision of the opposing converging fork with the nick could, in principle, form a second DNA end, enabling conservative repair by homologous recombination (HR). To study mechanisms of nickase-induced HR, we developed the Flp recombinase "step arrest" nickase in mammalian cells. Flp-nickase-induced HR entails two-ended, BRCA2/RAD51-dependent short tract gene conversion (STGC), BRCA2/RAD51-independent long tract gene conversion, and discoordinated two-ended invasions. HR induced by a replication-independent break and by the Flp-nickase differ in their dependence on BRCA1 . To determine the origin of the second DNA end during Flp-nickase-induced STGC, we blocked the opposing fork using a site-specific Tus/ Ter replication fork barrier. Flp-nickase-induced STGC remained robust and two-ended. Thus, collision of a single replication fork with a Flp-nick can trigger two-ended HR, possibly reflecting replicative bypass of lagging strand nicks. This response may limit genomic instability during replication of a nicked DNA template.

A Decade of Discovery-Eukaryotic Replisome Disassembly at Replication Termination

The eukaryotic replicative helicase (CMG complex) is assembled during DNA replication initiation in a highly regulated manner, which is described in depth by other manuscripts in this Issue. During DNA replication, the replicative helicase moves through the chromatin, unwinding DNA and facilitating nascent DNA synthesis by polymerases. Once the duplication of a replicon is complete, the CMG helicase and the remaining components of the replisome need to be removed from the chromatin. Research carried out over the last ten years has produced a breakthrough in our understanding, revealing that replication termination, and more specifically replisome disassembly, is indeed a highly regulated process. This review brings together our current understanding of these processes and highlights elements of the mechanism that are conserved or have undergone divergence throughout evolution. Finally, we discuss events beyond the classic termination of DNA replication in S-phase and go over the known mechanisms of replicative helicase removal from chromatin in these particular situations.

Mechanism of eukaryotic origin unwinding is a dual helicase DNA shearing process

DNA replication in all cells begins with the melting of base pairs at the duplex origin to allow access to single-stranded DNA templates which are replicated by DNA polymerases. In bacteria, origin DNA is presumed to be melted by accessory proteins that allow loading of two ring-shaped replicative helicases around single-strand DNA (ssDNA) for bidirectional unwinding and DNA replication. In eukaryotes, by contrast, two replicative CMG (Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS) helicases are initially loaded head to head around origin double-strand DNA (dsDNA), and there does not appear to be a separate origin unwinding factor. This led us to investigate whether head-to-head CMGs use their adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-driven motors to initiate duplex DNA unwinding at the origin. Here, we show that CMG tracks on one strand of the duplex while surrounding it, and this feature allows two head-to-head CMGs to unwind dsDNA by using their respective motors to pull on opposite strands of the duplex. We further show that while CMG is capable of limited duplex unwinding on its own, the extent of unwinding is greatly and rapidly stimulated by addition of the multifunctional CMG-binding protein Mcm10 that is critical for productive initiation of DNA replication in vivo. On the basis of these findings, we propose that Mcm10 is a processivity or positioning factor that helps translate the work performed by the dual CMG motors at the origin into productive unwinding that facilitates bidirectional DNA replication.

DONSON is required for CMG helicase assembly in the mammalian cell cycle

DONSON is one of 13 genes mutated in a form of primordial microcephalic dwarfism known as Meier-Gorlin syndrome. The other 12 encode components of the CDC45-MCM-GINS helicase, around which the eukaryotic replisome forms, or are factors required for helicase assembly during DNA replication initiation. A role for DONSON in CDC45-MCM-GINS assembly was unanticipated, since DNA replication initiation can be reconstituted in vitro with purified proteins from budding yeast, which lacks DONSON. Using mouse embryonic stem cells as a model for the mammalian helicase, we show that DONSON binds directly but transiently to CDC45-MCM-GINS during S-phase and is essential for chromosome duplication. Rapid depletion of DONSON leads to the disappearance of the CDC45-MCM-GINS helicase from S-phase cells and our data indicate that DONSON is dispensable for loading of the MCM2-7 helicase core onto chromatin during G1-phase, but instead is essential for CDC45-MCM-GINS assembly during S-phase. These data identify DONSON as a missing link in our understanding of mammalian chromosome duplication and provide a molecular explanation for why mutations in human DONSON are associated with Meier-Gorlin syndrome.

Identification of Selective ATP-Competitive CMG Helicase Inhibitors for Cancer Intervention that Disrupt CMG-Replisome Function

The human CMG helicase (Cdc45-MCM-GINS) is a novel target for anti-cancer therapy due to tumor-specific weaknesses in CMG function induced by oncogenic changes and the need for CMG function during recovery from replicative stresses such as chemotherapy. Here, we developed an orthogonal biochemical screening approach and identified selective CMG inhibitors (CMGi) that inhibit ATPase and helicase activities in an ATP-competitive manner at low micromolar concentrations. Structure-activity information and in silico docking indicate that CMGi occupy ATP binding sites and channels within MCM subunits leading to the ATP clefts, which are likely used for ATP/ADP ingress or egress. CMGi inhibit cell growth and DNA replication using multiple molecular mechanisms. CMGi block helicase assembly steps that require ATP binding/hydrolysis by the MCM complex, specifically MCM ring assembly on DNA and GINS recruitment to DNA-loaded MCM hexamers. During S-phase, inhibition of MCM ATP binding/hydrolysis by CMGi causes a 'reverse allosteric' dissociation of Cdc45/GINS from the CMG that destabilizes the replisome and disrupts interactions with Ctf4, Mcm10, and DNA polymerase-α, -δ, -ε, resulting in DNA damage. These novel CMGi are selectively toxic toward tumor cells and define a new class of CMG helicase-targeted anti-cancer compounds with distinct mechanisms of action.

The CMG helicase and cancer: a tumor "engine" and weakness with missing mutations

The replicative Cdc45-MCM-GINS (CMG) helicase is a large protein complex that functions in the DNA melting and unwinding steps as a component of replisomes during DNA replication in mammalian cells. Although the CMG performs this important role in cell growth, the CMG is not a simple bystander in cell cycle events. Components of the CMG, specifically the MCM precursors, are also involved in maintaining genomic stability by regulating DNA replication fork speeds, facilitating recovery from replicative stresses, and preventing consequential DNA damage. Given these important functions, MCM/CMG complexes are highly regulated by growth factors such as TGF-ß1 and by signaling factors such as Myc, Cyclin E, and the retinoblastoma protein. Mismanagement of MCM/CMG complexes when these signaling mediators are deregulated, and in the absence of the tumor suppressor protein p53, leads to increased genomic instability and is a contributor to tumorigenic transformation and tumor heterogeneity. The goal of this review is to provide insight into the mechanisms and dynamics by which the CMG is regulated during its assembly and activation in mammalian genomes, and how errors in CMG regulation due to oncogenic changes promote tumorigenesis. Finally, and most importantly, we highlight the emerging understanding of the CMG helicase as an exploitable vulnerability and novel target for therapeutic intervention in cancer.

SV40 T-antigen uses a DNA shearing mechanism to initiate origin unwinding

Duplication of DNA genomes requires unwinding of the double-strand (ds) DNA so that each single strand (ss) can be copied by a DNA polymerase. The genomes of eukaryotic cells are unwound by two ring-shaped hexameric helicases that initially encircle dsDNA but transition to ssDNA for function as replicative helicases. How the duplex is initially unwound, and the role of the two helicases in this process, is poorly understood. We recently described an initiation mechanism for eukaryotes in which the two helicases are directed inward toward one another and shear the duplex open by pulling on opposite strands of the duplex while encircling dsDNA [L. D. Langston, M. E. O'Donnell, eLife 8, e46515 (2019)]. Two head-to-head T-Antigen helicases are long known to be loaded at the SV40 origin. We show here that T-Antigen tracks head (N-tier) first on ssDNA, opposite the direction proposed for decades. We also find that SV40 T-Antigen tracks directionally while encircling dsDNA and mainly tracks on one strand of the duplex in the same orientation as during ssDNA translocation. Further, two inward directed T-Antigen helicases on dsDNA are able to melt a 150-bp duplex. These findings explain the "rabbit ear" DNA loops observed at the SV40 origin by electron microscopy and reconfigure how the DNA loops emerge from the double hexamer relative to earlier models. Thus, the mechanism of DNA shearing by two opposing helicases is conserved in a eukaryotic viral helicase and may be widely used to initiate origin unwinding of dsDNA genomes.

GINS2 regulates the proliferation and apoptosis of colon cancer cells through PTP4A1

Colon cancer is associated with high death rates worldwide and poses a serious threat to public health. GINS complex subunit 2 (GINS2) serves a carcinogenic role in many cancers, including gastric adenocarcinoma, ovarian cancer and pancreatic cancer. However, the specific function of GINS2 in the development of colon cancer has not been described in detail. The present study aimed to clarify the role of GINS2 in colon cancer. A Cell Counting Kit‑8 assay, EdU staining, TUNEL and flow cytometry analyses were performed to determine the levels of cell viability, proliferation and apoptosis and to evaluate the cell cycle. Through the analysis of BioGrid, a Protein‑Protein Interaction database, it was hypothesized that protein tyrosine phosphatase 4A1 (PTP4A1) is a protein that might interact with GINS2, which was then validated using a co‑immunoprecipitation assay. mRNA and protein levels were measured using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blotting, respectively. The results of the present study demonstrated that GINS2 expression levels were increased in colon cancer cells. Furthermore, GINS2 knockdown inhibited the proliferation of colon cancer cells, while the levels of cell cycle arrest and apoptosis were increased. By interacting with PTP4A1, GINS2 promoted the expression of PTP4A1, a novel p53 target. GINS2 knockdown was increased, while PTP4A1 overexpression decreased the protein level of p53. Notably, PTP4A1 overexpression partly reversed the effects of GINS2 downregulation on colon cancer cells. Therefore, the present study demonstrated that GINS2 regulated the proliferation and apoptosis of colon cancer cells through PTP4A1/p53 pathway, highlighting that GINS2 may serve as a novel molecular marker for colon cancer prevention and therapy.

CMG helicase can use ATPγS to unwind DNA: Implications for the rate-limiting step in the reaction mechanism

The adenosine triphosphate (ATP) analog ATPγS often greatly slows or prevents enzymatic ATP hydrolysis. The eukaryotic CMG (Cdc45, Mcm2 to 7, GINS) replicative helicase is presumed unable to hydrolyze ATPγS and thus unable to perform DNA unwinding, as documented for certain other helicases. Consequently, ATPγS is often used to "preload" CMG onto forked DNA substrates without unwinding before adding ATP to initiate helicase activity. We find here that CMG does hydrolyze ATPγS and couples it to DNA unwinding. Indeed, the rate of unwinding of a 20- and 30-mer duplex fork of different sequences by CMG is only reduced 1- to 1.5-fold using ATPγS compared with ATP. These findings imply that a conformational change is the rate-limiting step during CMG unwinding, not hydrolysis. Instead of using ATPγS for loading CMG onto DNA, we demonstrate here that nonhydrolyzable adenylyl-imidodiphosphate (AMP-PNP) can be used to preload CMG onto a forked DNA substrate without unwinding.

Synergistic effects of methyl 2-cyano-3,11-dioxo-18beta-olean-1,-12-dien-30-oate and erlotinib on erlotinib-resistant non-small cell lung cancer cells

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is often characterized by an underlying mutation in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), contributing to aggressive metastatic disease. Methyl 2-cyano-3,11-dioxo-18beta-olean-1,12-dien-30-oate (CDODA-Me), a glycyrrhetinic acid derivative, reportedly improves the therapeutic response to erlotinib (ERL), an EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor. In the present study, we performed a series of studies to demonstrate the efficacy of CDODA-Me (2 μM) in sensitizing HCC827R (ERL-resistant) cells to ERL. Herein, we first established the selectivity of ERL-induced drug resistance in the HCC827R cells, which was sensitized when ERL was combined with CDODA-Me (2 μM), shifting the IC50 from 23.48 μM to 5.46 μM. Subsequently, whole transcriptomic microarray expression data demonstrated that the combination of ERL + CDODA-Me elicited 210 downregulated genes (0.44% of the whole transcriptome (WT)) and 174 upregulated genes (0.36% of the WT), of which approximately 80% were unique to the ERL + CDODA-Me group. Synergistic effects centered on losses to cell cycle progression transcripts, a reduction of minichromosome maintenance complex components (MCM2-7), all key components of the Cdc45·MCM2-7GINS (CMG) complex, and replicative helicases; these effects were tantamount to the upregulation of processes associated with the nuclear factor erythroid 2 like 2 translational response to oxidative stress, including sulfiredoxin 1, heme oxygenase 1, and stress-induced growth inhibitor 1. Collectively, these findings indicate that the synergistic therapeutic effects of ERL + CDODA-Me on resistant NSCLC cells are mediated via the inhibition of mitosis and induction of oxidative stress.

Family D DNA polymerase interacts with GINS to promote CMG-helicase in the archaeal replisome

Genomic DNA replication requires replisome assembly. We show here the molecular mechanism by which CMG (GAN-MCM-GINS)-like helicase cooperates with the family D DNA polymerase (PolD) in Thermococcus kodakarensis. The archaeal GINS contains two Gins51 subunits, the C-terminal domain of which (Gins51C) interacts with GAN. We discovered that Gins51C also interacts with the N-terminal domain of PolD's DP1 subunit (DP1N) to connect two PolDs in GINS. The two replicases in the replisome should be responsible for leading- and lagging-strand synthesis, respectively. Crystal structure analysis of the DP1N-Gins51C-GAN ternary complex was provided to understand the structural basis of the connection between the helicase and DNA polymerase. Site-directed mutagenesis analysis supported the interaction mode obtained from the crystal structure. Furthermore, the assembly of helicase and replicase identified in this study is also conserved in Eukarya. PolD enhances the parental strand unwinding via stimulation of ATPase activity of the CMG-complex. This is the first evidence of the functional connection between replicase and helicase in Archaea. These results suggest that the direct interaction of PolD with CMG-helicase is critical for synchronizing strand unwinding and nascent strand synthesis and possibly provide a functional machinery for the effective progression of the replication fork.

The interplay of RNA:DNA hybrid structure and G-quadruplexes determines the outcome of R-loop-replisome collisions

R-loops are a major source of genome instability associated with transcription-induced replication stress. However, how R-loops inherently impact replication fork progression is not understood. Here, we characterize R-loop-replisome collisions using a fully reconstituted eukaryotic DNA replication system. We find that RNA:DNA hybrids and G-quadruplexes at both co-directional and head-on R-loops can impact fork progression by inducing fork stalling, uncoupling of leading strand synthesis from replisome progression, and nascent strand gaps. RNase H1 and Pif1 suppress replication defects by resolving RNA:DNA hybrids and G-quadruplexes, respectively. We also identify an intrinsic capacity of replisomes to maintain fork progression at certain R-loops by unwinding RNA:DNA hybrids, repriming leading strand synthesis downstream of G-quadruplexes, or utilizing R-loop transcripts to prime leading strand restart during co-directional R-loop-replisome collisions. Collectively, the data demonstrates that the outcome of R-loop-replisome collisions is modulated by R-loop structure, providing a mechanistic basis for the distinction of deleterious from non-deleterious R-loops.

Expression of recombinant multi-protein complexes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a versatile system for expression of recombinant eukaryotic proteins. This system is simple to use and does not require extraordinary expertise nor tissue culture facilities. Proteins expressed in the yeast system provide eukaryotic post-translational modifications, making it superior to bacterial expression for factors that require post-translational modification. In addition, it is quite simple to co-express multiple genes at the same time, for recombinant production of large multi-protein complexes. In this chapter, we provide protocols for inducible expression of recombinant genes from episomal plasmid vectors, and protocols for integration of the recombinant genes into the chromosomes of yeast, which enables simple rapid growth of expression cells and induction of recombinant protein complexes in non-selectable rich media.

Knockdown of GINS2 inhibits proliferation and promotes apoptosis through the p53/GADD45A pathway in non-small-cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is a malignant tumour type with the highest morbidity and mortality, and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the most common pathological type. GINS complex subunit 2 (GINS2) is a member of the GINS family and is closely related to DNA replication and damage, participates in cell cycle regulation and plays a key role in cell proliferation and apoptosis. In the present study, we aimed to explore the role and underlying molecular mechanism of GINS2 in the development of NSCLC. The results showed that GINS2 is significantly increased in NSCLC tissues and cell lines. Knockdown of GINS2 significantly decreases cell proliferation, causing G₂/M phase cell cycle arrest. Knockdown of GINS2 reverses the effect of nocodazole on the levels of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1) and cyclin-B1. Meanwhile, knockdown of GINS2 significantly elevates the apoptosis rate and apoptosis-related protein Bax and decreases Bcl-2. In addition, GINS2 knockdown induces an increase in the levels of p53 and growth arrest and DNA damage 45A (GADD45A). Co-transfection with GINS2-siRNA and siRNA against p53 (p53-siRNA) or co-transfection with GINS2-siRNA and siRNA against GADD45A (GADD45A-siRNA) partially reverses the effects of GINS2 knockdown on cell proliferation and apoptosis. Taken together, these results indicate that GINS2 knockdown down-regulates cell proliferation, induces G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and increases apoptosis, possibly through the p53/GADD45A pathway.

Single-strand DNA breaks cause replisome disassembly

DNA damage impedes replication fork progression and threatens genome stability. Upon encounter with most DNA adducts, the replicative CMG helicase (CDC45-MCM2-7-GINS) stalls or uncouples from the point of synthesis, yet eventually resumes replication. However, little is known about the effect on replication of single-strand breaks or "nicks," which are abundant in mammalian cells. Using Xenopus egg extracts, we reveal that CMG collision with a nick in the leading strand template generates a blunt-ended double-strand break (DSB). Moreover, CMG, which encircles the leading strand template, "runs off" the end of the DSB. In contrast, CMG collision with a lagging strand nick generates a broken end with a single-stranded overhang. In this setting, CMG translocates along double-stranded DNA beyond the break and is then ubiquitylated and removed from chromatin by the same pathway used during replication termination. Our results show that nicks are uniquely dangerous DNA lesions that invariably cause replisome disassembly, and they suggest that CMG cannot be stored on dsDNA while cells resolve replication stress.

Duplex DNA engagement and RPA oppositely regulate the DNA-unwinding rate of CMG helicase

A ring-shaped helicase unwinds DNA during chromosome replication in all organisms. Replicative helicases generally unwind duplex DNA an order of magnitude slower compared to their in vivo replication fork rates. However, the origin of slow DNA unwinding rates by replicative helicases and the mechanism by which other replication components increase helicase speed are unclear. Here, we demonstrate that engagement of the eukaryotic CMG helicase with template DNA at the replication fork impairs its helicase activity, which is alleviated by binding of the single-stranded DNA binding protein, RPA, to the excluded DNA strand. Intriguingly, we found that, when stalled due to interaction with the parental duplex, DNA rezipping-induced helicase backtracking reestablishes productive helicase-fork engagement, underscoring the significance of plasticity in helicase action. Our work provides a mechanistic basis for relatively slow duplex unwinding by replicative helicases and explains how replisome components that interact with the excluded DNA strand stimulate fork rates.

RIF1 controls replication initiation and homologous recombination repair in a radiation dose-dependent manner

RIF1 controls both DNA replication timing and the DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair pathway to maintain genome integrity. However, it remains unclear how RIF1 links these two processes following exposure to ionizing radiation (IR). Here, we show that inhibition of homologous recombination repair (HRR) by RIF1 occurs in a dose-dependent manner and is controlled via DNA replication. RIF1 inhibits both DNA end resection and RAD51 accumulation after exposure to high doses of IR. Contrastingly, HRR inhibition by RIF1 is antagonized by BRCA1 after a low-dose IR exposure. At high IR doses, RIF1 suppresses replication initiation by dephosphorylating MCM helicase. Notably, the dephosphorylation of MCM helicase inhibits both DNA end resection and HRR, even without RIF1. Thus, our data show the importance of active DNA replication for HRR and suggest a common suppression mechanism for DNA replication and HRR at high IR doses, both of which are controlled by RIF1.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Replication Fork Activation Is Enabled by a Single-Stranded DNA Gate in CMG Helicase

The eukaryotic replicative helicase CMG is a closed ring around double-stranded (ds)DNA at origins yet must transition to single-stranded (ss)DNA for helicase action. CMG must also handle repair intermediates, such as reversed forks that lack ssDNA. Here, using correlative single-molecule fluorescence and force microscopy, we show that CMG harbors a ssDNA gate that enables transitions between ss and dsDNA. When coupled to DNA polymerase, CMG remains on ssDNA, but when uncoupled, CMG employs this gate to traverse forked junctions onto dsDNA. Surprisingly, CMG undergoes rapid diffusion on dsDNA and can transition back onto ssDNA to nucleate a functional replisome. The gate-distinct from that between Mcm2/5 used for origin loading-is intrinsic to CMG; however, Mcm10 promotes strand passage by enhancing the affinity of CMG to DNA. This gating process may explain the dsDNA-to-ssDNA transition of CMG at origins and help preserve CMG on dsDNA during fork repair.

Contacts and context that regulate DNA helicase unwinding and replisome progression

Hexameric DNA helicases involved in the separation of duplex DNA at the replication fork have a universal architecture but have evolved from two separate protein families. The consequences are that the regulation, translocation polarity, strand specificity, and architectural orientation varies between phage/bacteria to that of archaea/eukaryotes. Once assembled and activated for single strand DNA translocation and unwinding, the DNA polymerase couples tightly to the helicase forming a robust replisome complex. However, this helicase-polymerase interaction can be challenged by various forms of endogenous or exogenous agents that can stall the entire replisome or decouple DNA unwinding from synthesis. The consequences of decoupling can be severe, leading to a build-up of ssDNA requiring various pathways for replication fork restart. All told, the hexameric helicase sits prominently at the front of the replisome constantly responding to a variety of obstacles that require transient unwinding/reannealing, traversal of more stable blocks, and alternations in DNA unwinding speed that regulate replisome progression.

The human papillomavirus DNA helicase E1 binds, stimulates, and confers processivity to cellular DNA polymerase epsilon

The papillomavirus (PV) helicase protein E1 recruits components of the cellular DNA replication machinery to the PV replication fork, such as Replication Protein A (RPA), DNA polymerase α-primase (pol α) and topoisomerase I (topo I). Here we show that E1 binds to DNA polymerase ϵ (pol ϵ) and dramatically stimulates the DNA synthesis activity of pol ϵ. This stimulation of pol ϵ by E1 is highly specific and occurs even in the absence of the known pol ϵ cofactors Replication Factor C (RFC), Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) and RPA. This stimulation is due to an increase in the processivity of pol ϵ and occurs independently of pol ϵ’s replication cofactors. This increase in processivity is dependent on the ability of the E1 helicase to hydrolyze ATP, suggesting it is dependent on E1’s helicase action. In addition, RPA, thought to be vital for processive DNA synthesis by both pol ϵ and pol δ, was found to be dispensable for processive synthesis by pol ϵ in the presence of E1. Overall, E1 appears to be conferring processivity to pol ϵ by directly tethering pol ϵ to the DNA parental strand and towing ϵ behind the E1 helicase as the replication fork progresses; and thereby apparently obviating the need for RPA for leading strand synthesis. Thus far only pol α and pol δ have been implicated in the DNA replication of mammalian viruses; this is the first reported example of a virus recruiting pol ϵ. Furthermore, this demonstrates a unique capacity of a viral helicase having evolved to stimulate a cellular replicative DNA polymerase.

An explanation for origin unwinding in eukaryotes

Twin CMG complexes are assembled head-to-head around duplex DNA at eukaryotic origins of replication. Mcm10 activates CMGs to form helicases that encircle single-strand (ss) DNA and initiate bidirectional forks. How the CMGs melt duplex DNA while encircling it is unknown. Here we show that S. cerevisiae CMG tracks with force while encircling double-stranded (ds) DNA and that in the presence of Mcm10 the CMG melts long blocks of dsDNA while it encircles dsDNA. We demonstrate that CMG tracks mainly on the 3'-5' strand during duplex translocation, predicting that head-to-head CMGs at an origin exert force on opposite strands. Accordingly, we show that CMGs that encircle double strand DNA in a head-to-head orientation melt the duplex in an Mcm10-dependent reaction.

In the line-up: deleted genes associated with DiGeorge/22q11.2 deletion syndrome: are they all suspects?

BACKGROUND

22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), a copy number variation (CNV) disorder, occurs in approximately 1:4000 live births due to a heterozygous microdeletion at position 11.2 (proximal) on the q arm of human chromosome 22 (hChr22) (McDonald-McGinn and Sullivan, Medicine 90:1-18, 2011). This disorder was known as DiGeorge syndrome, Velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS) or conotruncal anomaly face syndrome (CTAF) based upon diagnostic cardiovascular, pharyngeal, and craniofacial anomalies (McDonald-McGinn and Sullivan, Medicine 90:1-18, 2011; Burn et al., J Med Genet 30:822-4, 1993) before this phenotypic spectrum was associated with 22q11.2 CNVs. Subsequently, 22q11.2 deletion emerged as a major genomic lesion associated with vulnerability for several clinically defined behavioral deficits common to a number of neurodevelopmental disorders (Fernandez et al., Principles of Developmental Genetics, 2015; Robin and Shprintzen, J Pediatr 147:90-6, 2005; Schneider et al., Am J Psychiatry 171:627-39, 2014).

RESULTS

The mechanistic relationships between heterozygously deleted 22q11.2 genes and 22q11DS phenotypes are still unknown. We assembled a comprehensive "line-up" of the 36 protein coding loci in the 1.5 Mb minimal critical deleted region on hChr22q11.2, plus 20 protein coding loci in the distal 1.5 Mb that defines the 3 Mb typical 22q11DS deletion. We categorized candidates based upon apparent primary cell biological functions. We analyzed 41 of these genes that encode known proteins to determine whether haploinsufficiency of any single 22q11.2 gene-a one gene to one phenotype correspondence due to heterozygous deletion restricted to that locus-versus complex multigenic interactions can account for single or multiple 22q11DS phenotypes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our 22q11.2 functional genomic assessment does not support current theories of single gene haploinsufficiency for one or all 22q11DS phenotypes. Shared molecular functions, convergence on fundamental cell biological processes, and related consequences of individual 22q11.2 genes point to a matrix of multigenic interactions due to diminished 22q11.2 gene dosage. These interactions target fundamental cellular mechanisms essential for development, maturation, or homeostasis at subsets of 22q11DS phenotypic sites.

The mechanism of DNA unwinding by the eukaryotic replicative helicase

Accurate DNA replication is tightly regulated in eukaryotes to ensure genome stability during cell division and is performed by the multi-protein replisome. At the core an AAA+ hetero-hexameric complex, Mcm2-7, together with GINS and Cdc45 form the active replicative helicase Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS (CMG). It is not clear how this replicative ring helicase translocates on, and unwinds, DNA. We measure real-time dynamics of purified recombinant Drosophila melanogaster CMG unwinding DNA with single-molecule magnetic tweezers. Our data demonstrates that CMG exhibits a biased random walk, not the expected unidirectional motion. Through building a kinetic model we find CMG may enter up to three paused states rather than unwinding, and should these be prevented, in vivo fork rates would be recovered in vitro. We propose a mechanism in which CMG couples ATP hydrolysis to unwinding by acting as a lazy Brownian ratchet, thus providing quantitative understanding of the central process in eukaryotic DNA replication.

Dynamics of the Eukaryotic Replicative Helicase at Lagging-Strand Protein Barriers Support the Steric Exclusion Model

Progression of DNA replication depends on the ability of the replisome complex to overcome nucleoprotein barriers. During eukaryotic replication, the CMG helicase translocates along the leading-strand template and unwinds the DNA double helix. While proteins bound to the leading-strand template efficiently block the helicase, the impact of lagging-strand protein obstacles on helicase translocation and replisome progression remains controversial. Here, we show that CMG and replisome progressions are impaired when proteins crosslinked to the lagging-strand template enhance the stability of duplex DNA. In contrast, proteins that exclusively interact with the lagging-strand template influence neither the translocation of isolated CMG nor replisome progression in Xenopus egg extracts. Our data imply that CMG completely excludes the lagging-strand template from the helicase central channel while unwinding DNA at the replication fork, which clarifies how two CMG helicases could freely cross one another during replication initiation and termination.

Mcm10 has potent strand-annealing activity and limits translocase-mediated fork regression

Fork regression is a way of circumventing or dealing with DNA lesions and is important to genome integrity. Fork regression is performed by double-strand DNA ATPases that initially cause newly synthesized strands to unpair from the parental strands, followed by pairing of the new strands and reversal of the fork. This study shows that Mcm10, an essential replication factor, efficiently anneals complementary strands and also inhibits fork regression by SMARCAL1. Moreover, the study localizes the Mcm10 DNA-binding domain to the N-terminal domains of the replicative CMG helicase at the forked nexus. Thus, forks that are unimpeded would contain Mcm10 at a strategic position where its DNA-binding and/or annealing function may block fork regression enzymes and thereby protect active forks from becoming reversed.

The 11-subunit eukaryotic replicative helicase CMG (Cdc45, Mcm2-7, GINS) tightly binds Mcm10, an essential replication protein in all eukaryotes. Here we show that Mcm10 has a potent strand-annealing activity both alone and in complex with CMG. CMG-Mcm10 unwinds and then reanneals single strands soon after they have been unwound in vitro. Given the DNA damage and replisome instability associated with loss of Mcm10 function, we examined the effect of Mcm10 on fork regression. Fork regression requires the unwinding and pairing of newly synthesized strands, performed by a specialized class of ATP-dependent DNA translocases. We show here that Mcm10 inhibits fork regression by the well-known fork reversal enzyme SMARCAL1. We propose that Mcm10 inhibits the unwinding of nascent strands to prevent fork regression at normal unperturbed replication forks, either by binding the fork junction to form a block to SMARCAL1 or by reannealing unwound nascent strands to their parental template. Analysis of the CMG-Mcm10 complex by cross-linking mass spectrometry reveals Mcm10 interacts with six CMG subunits, with the DNA-binding region of Mcm10 on the N-face of CMG. This position on CMG places Mcm10 at the fork junction, consistent with a role in regulating fork regression.

GINS complex subunit 2 (GINS2) plays a protective role in alcohol-induced brain injury

Acute alcohol intoxication is a central nervous system disease that accounts for a large number of hospital admissions. In the present study, we have explored the role of GINS complex subunit 2 (GINS2) in acute alcohol intoxication and alcohol-induced brain injury. We began by determining that GINS2 mRNA expression was significantly increased in the serum of patients with alcohol abuse. We then found that GINS2 is increased in mouse brains after alcohol consumption. To explore the role of GINS2 in alcohol-induced microglia function, we knocked down GINS2 in mouse microglia and then treated the cells with alcohol. Knockdown of GINS2 significantly increased alcohol-induced ROS production and the oxidative stress marker malondialdehyde. To explore if GINS2 is involved in alcohol-induced microglia apoptosis, we examined cell viability in GINS2 knockdown cells by TUNEL staining and caspase activity assays. Consistently, results showed that alcohol-induced cell apoptosis was promoted by knockdown of GINS2. Finally, we assessed expression levels of inflammatory factors in GINS2 knockdown microglial cells as well as the effects of GINS2 knockdown on NF-κB signalling. Inflammatory factors were stimulated by alcohol and further promoted by GINS2 knockdown, and GINS2 knockdown promoted alcohol-induced NF-κB activity in microglia.

Loss of GINS2 inhibits cell proliferation and tumorigenesis in human gliomas

AIMS

In this study, we examined the expression of GINS2 in glioma and determined its role in glioma development.

METHODS

The protein expression of GINS2 was assessed in 120 human glioma samples via immunohistochemistry. Then, we suppressed the expression of GINS2 in glioma cell strains U87 and U251 using a short hairpin RNA lentiviral vector. In addition, RNA sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were performed on glioma cells before and after GINS2 knockdown. Subsequent co-immunoprecipitation and western blot experiments indicated possible downstream regulatory molecules.

RESULTS

The present results showed that GINS2 can accelerate the growth of glioma cells, whereas the suppression of GINS2 expression decreased the proliferation and tumorigenicity of glioma cells. Mechanism research experiments proved that GINS2 can block the cell cycle by regulating certain downstream molecules, such as MCM2, ATM, and CHEK2.

CONCLUSION

GINS2 is closely related to the occurrence and development of glioma, and is likely to become a prognostic marker for glioma patients, as well as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of glioma.

H3-H4 Histone Chaperone Pathways

Nucleosomes compact and organize genetic material on a structural level. However, they also alter local chromatin accessibility through changes in their position, through the incorporation of histone variants, and through a vast array of histone posttranslational modifications. The dynamic nature of chromatin requires histone chaperones to process, deposit, and evict histones in different tissues and at different times in the cell cycle. This review focuses on the molecular details of canonical and variant H3-H4 histone chaperone pathways that lead to histone deposition on DNA as they are currently understood. Emphasis is placed on the most established pathways beginning with the folding, posttranslational modification, and nuclear import of newly synthesized H3-H4 histones. Next, we review the deposition of replication-coupled H3.1-H4 in S-phase and replication-independent H3.3-H4 via alternative histone chaperone pathways. Highly specialized histone chaperones overseeing the deposition of histone variants are also briefly discussed.

GINS2 promotes cell proliferation and inhibits cell apoptosis in thyroid cancer by regulating CITED2 and LOXL2

To explore the mechanisms of GINS2 on cell proliferation and apoptosis in thyroid cancer (TC) cells. Expressions of GINS2 were inhibited in K1 and SW579 cells using gene interference technology. The abilities of proliferation and apoptosis, and cell cycle were determined by MTT assay and flow cytometric assay. The downstream molecules of GINS2 were searched by microarray and bioinformatics and validated by qRT-PCR and western blotting. In the in vivo study, the tumor growth was compared and the whole-body fluorescent imaging was analyzed. After GINS2 was interfered, cell proliferation was significantly inhibited (P < 0.01) and apoptosis rate increased (P < 0.01) in both K1 and SW579 cells. Cell cycle changed significantly in K1 cells, but not in SW579 cells. With bioinformatics upstream analysis, TGF-β1 was found as the most significantly upstream regulator. Expressions of TGF-β1 and its downstream target molecules CITED2 and LOXL2 were validated and found downregulated significantly in mRNA and protein levels (P < 0.05). The results of the nude mouse xenograft assay suggested that the volume and weight of tumor in ones infected with shGINS2 were statistically smaller than controls (P < 0.05). GINS2 plays an important role in cell proliferation and apoptosis of thyroid cancer by regulating the expressions of CITED2 and LOXL2, which may be a potential biomarker for diagnosis or prognosis and a drug target for therapy.

Histone H2A-H2B binding by Pol α in the eukaryotic replisome contributes to the maintenance of repressive chromatin

The eukaryotic replisome disassembles parental chromatin at DNA replication forks, but then plays a poorly understood role in the re‐deposition of the displaced histone complexes onto nascent DNA. Here, we show that yeast DNA polymerase α contains a histone‐binding motif that is conserved in human Pol α and is specific for histones H2A and H2B. Mutation of this motif in budding yeast cells does not affect DNA synthesis, but instead abrogates gene silencing at telomeres and mating‐type loci. Similar phenotypes are produced not only by mutations that displace Pol α from the replisome, but also by mutation of the previously identified histone‐binding motif in the CMG helicase subunit Mcm2, the human orthologue of which was shown to bind to histones H3 and H4. We show that chromatin‐derived histone complexes can be bound simultaneously by Mcm2, Pol α and the histone chaperone FACT that is also a replisome component. These findings indicate that replisome assembly unites multiple histone‐binding activities, which jointly process parental histones to help preserve silent chromatin during the process of chromosome duplication.

GINS2 regulates cell proliferation and apoptosis in human epithelial ovarian cancer

Go-Ichi-Ni-San 2 (GINS2), also known as partner of Sld five 2, is involved in the initiation of DNA replication and cell cycle progression. GINS2 is abundantly expressed in a number of malignant solid tumors, including breast cancer, melanoma and hepatic carcinoma. However, the functions of GINS2 in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) remain unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate these functions. GINS2 expression was detected in EOC and normal ovarian tissues using immunohistochemistry. To investigate the functions of GINS2 in EOC, GINS2 expression was stably knocked down in SKOV-3 cells using lentiviral short hairpin RNA (shRNA). The expression of GINS2 mRNA and protein in SKOV-3 cells was examined using reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blot analyses, respectively. Cell proliferation was determined using high-content screening and MTT assays. Cell cycle progression and apoptosis were detected using flow cytometry. Compared with normal ovarian tissues, EOC tissues expressed increased levels of GINS2 expression (16.7 vs. 58.3%). Increased expression of GINS2 mRNA was also observed in SKOV-3 and OVCAR3 cells. In the investigation of GINS2 functions in EOC, GINS2 expression at the mRNA and protein levels was significantly inhibited by specific GINS2 shRNA. GINS2 knockdown significantly inhibited the proliferation and viability of SKOV-3 cells and induced cell cycle arrest in S phase. Furthermore, GINS2 knockdown in SKOV-3 cells significantly increased cell apoptosis. GINS2 is markedly expressed in EOC tissues and cell lines. Stable GINS2 knockdown in SKOV-3 cells significantly inhibited cell proliferation and induced cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis. Therefore, GINS2 may be involved in EOC progression.

The Human Replicative Helicase, the CMG Complex, as a Target for Anti-cancer Therapy

DNA helicases unwind or rearrange duplex DNA during replication, recombination and repair. Helicases of many pathogenic organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoa have been studied as potential therapeutic targets to treat infectious diseases, and human DNA helicases as potential targets for anti-cancer therapy. DNA replication machineries perform essential tasks duplicating genome in every cell cycle, and one of the important functions of these machineries are played by DNA helicases. Replicative helicases are usually multi-subunit protein complexes, and the minimal complex active as eukaryotic replicative helicase is composed of 11 subunits, requiring a functional assembly of two subcomplexes and one protein. The hetero-hexameric MCM2-7 helicase is activated by forming a complex with Cdc45 and the hetero-tetrameric GINS complex; the Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS (CMG) complex. The CMG complex can be a potential target for a treatment of cancer and the feasibility of this replicative helicase as a therapeutic target has been tested recently. Several different strategies have been implemented and are under active investigations to interfere with helicase activity of the CMG complex. This review focuses on the molecular function of the CMG helicase during DNA replication and its relevance to cancers based on data published in the literature. In addition, current efforts made to identify small molecules inhibiting the CMG helicase to develop anti-cancer therapeutic strategies were summarized, with new perspectives to advance the discovery of the CMG-targeting drugs.

The dominant role of proofreading exonuclease activity of replicative polymerase ε in cellular tolerance to cytarabine (Ara-C)

Chemotherapeutic nucleoside analogs, such as Ara-C, 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) and Trifluridine (FTD), are frequently incorporated into DNA by the replicative DNA polymerases. However, it remains unclear how this incorporation kills cycling cells. There are two possibilities: Nucleoside analog triphosphates inhibit the replicative DNA polymerases, and/or nucleotide analogs mis-incorporated into genomic DNA interfere with the next round of DNA synthesis as replicative DNA polymerases recognize them as template DNA lesions, arresting synthesis. To address the first possibility, we selectively disrupted the proofreading exonuclease activity of DNA polymerase ε (Polε), the leading-strand replicative polymerase in avian DT40 and human TK6 cell lines. To address the second, we disrupted RAD18, a gene involved in translesion DNA synthesis, a mechanism that relieves stalled replication. Strikingly, POLE1^exo−/− cells, but not RAD18^−/− cells, were hypersensitive to Ara-C, while RAD18^−/− cells were hypersensitive to FTD. gH2AX focus formation following a pulse of Ara-C was immediate and did not progress into the next round of replication, while gH2AX focus formation following a pulse of 5-FU and FTD was delayed to the next round of replication. Biochemical studies indicate that human proofreading-deficient Polε-exo⁻ holoenzyme incorporates Ara-CTP, but subsequently extend from this base several times less efficiently than from intact nucleotides. Together our results suggest that Ara-C acts by blocking extension of the nascent DNA strand and is counteracted by the proofreading activity of Polε, while 5-FU and FTD are efficiently incorporated but act as replication fork blocks in the subsequent S phase, which is counteracted by translesion synthesis.

The Eukaryotic CMG Helicase at the Replication Fork: Emerging Architecture Reveals an Unexpected Mechanism

The eukaryotic helicase is an 11-subunit machine containing an Mcm2-7 motor ring that encircles DNA, Cdc45 and the GINS tetramer, referred to as CMG (Cdc45, Mcm2-7, GINS). CMG is "built" on DNA at origins in two steps. First, two Mcm2-7 rings are assembled around duplex DNA at origins in G1 phase, forming the Mcm2-7 "double hexamer." In a second step, in S phase Cdc45 and GINS are assembled onto each Mcm2-7 ring, hence producing two CMGs that ultimately form two replication forks that travel in opposite directions. Here, we review recent findings about CMG structure and function. The CMG unwinds the parental duplex and is also the organizing center of the replisome: it binds DNA polymerases and other factors. EM studies reveal a 20-subunit core replisome with the leading Pol ϵ and lagging Pol α-primase on opposite faces of CMG, forming a fundamentally asymmetric architecture. Structural studies of CMG at a replication fork reveal unexpected details of how CMG engages the DNA fork. The structures of CMG and the Mcm2-7 double hexamer on DNA suggest a completely unanticipated process for formation of bidirectional replication forks at origins.

Potent DNA strand annealing activity associated with mouse Mcm2∼7 heterohexameric complex

Mini-chromosome maintenance (Mcm) is a central component for DNA unwinding reaction during eukaryotic DNA replication. Mcm2∼7, each containing a conserved ATPase motif, form a six subunit-heterohexamer. Although the reconstituted Mcm2∼7–Cdc45–GINS (CMG) complex displays DNA unwinding activity, the Mcm2∼7 complex does not generally exhibit helicase activity under a normal assay condition. We detected a strong DNA strand annealing activity in the purified mouse Mcm2∼7 heterohexamer, which promotes rapid reassociation of displaced complementary single-stranded DNAs, suggesting a potential cause for its inability to exhibit DNA helicase activity. Indeed, DNA unwinding activity of Mcm2∼7 could be detected in the presence of a single-stranded DNA that is complementary to the displaced strand, which would prevent its reannealing to the template. ATPase-deficient mutations in Mcm2, 4, 5 and 6 subunits inactivated the annealing activity, while those in Mcm2 and 5 subunits alone did not. The annealing activity of Mcm2∼7 does not require Mg²⁺ and ATP, and is adversely inhibited by the presence of high concentration of Mg²⁺ and ATP while activated by similar concentrations of ADP. Our findings show that the DNA helicase activity of Mcm2∼7 may be masked by its unexpectedly strong annealing activity, and suggest potential physiological roles of strand annealing activity of Mcm during replication stress responses.