Interaction between human Ctf4 and the Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS (CMG) replicative helicase

Control of Replication Stress Response by Cytosolic Fe-S Cluster Assembly (CIA) Machinery

Accurate DNA replication is essential for the maintenance of genome stability and the generation of healthy offspring. When DNA replication is challenged, signals accumulate at blocked replication forks that elicit a multifaceted cellular response, orchestrating DNA replication, DNA repair and cell cycle progression. This replication stress response promotes the recovery of DNA replication, maintaining chromosome integrity and preventing mutations. Defects in this response are linked to heightened genetic instability, which contributes to tumorigenesis and genetic disorders. Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are emerging as important cofactors in supporting the response to replication stress. These clusters are assembled and delivered to target proteins that function in the cytosol and nucleus via the conserved cytosolic Fe-S cluster assembly (CIA) machinery and the CIA targeting complex. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the structure and function of the CIA machinery in yeast and mammals, emphasizing the critical role of Fe-S clusters in the replication stress response.

Identification of ATP-Competitive Human CMG Helicase Inhibitors for Cancer Intervention that Disrupt CMG-Replisome Function

The human CMG helicase (Cdc45-MCM-GINS) is a novel target for anticancer therapy. Tumor-specific weaknesses in the CMG are caused by oncogene-driven changes that adversely affect CMG function, and CMG activity is required for recovery from replicative stresses such as chemotherapy. Herein, we developed an orthogonal biochemical screening approach and identified CMG inhibitors (CMGi) that inhibit ATPase and helicase activities in an ATP-competitive manner at low micromolar concentrations. Structure-activity information, in silico docking, and testing with synthetic chemical compounds indicate that CMGi require specific chemical elements and occupy ATP-binding sites and channels within minichromosome maintenance (MCM) subunits leading to the ATP clefts, which are likely used for ATP/ADP ingress or egress. CMGi are therefore MCM complex inhibitors (MCMi). Biologic testing shows that CMGi/MCMi inhibit cell growth and DNA replication using multiple molecular mechanisms distinct from other chemotherapy agents. CMGi/MCMi block helicase assembly steps that require ATP binding/hydrolysis by the MCM complex, specifically MCM ring assembly on DNA and GINS recruitment to DNA-loaded MCM hexamers. During the S-phase, inhibition of MCM ATP binding/hydrolysis by CMGi/MCMi causes a "reverse allosteric" dissociation of Cdc45/GINS from the CMG that destabilizes replisome components Ctf4, Mcm10, and DNA polymerase-α, -δ, and -ε, resulting in DNA damage. CMGi/MCMi display selective toxicity toward multiple solid tumor cell types with K-Ras mutations, targeting the CMG and inducing DNA damage, Parp cleavage, and loss of viability. This new class of CMGi/MCMi provides a basis for small chemical development of CMG helicase-targeted anticancer compounds with distinct mechanisms of action.

The multifaceted roles of the Ctf4 replisome hub in the maintenance of genome integrity

At the core of cellular life lies a carefully orchestrated interplay of DNA replication, recombination, chromatin assembly, sister-chromatid cohesion and transcription. These fundamental processes, while seemingly discrete, are inextricably linked during genome replication. A set of replisome factors integrate various DNA transactions and contribute to the transient formation of sister chromatid junctions involving either the cohesin complex or DNA four-way junctions. The latter structures serve DNA damage bypass and may have additional roles in replication fork stabilization or in marking regions of replication fork blockage. Here, we will discuss these concepts based on the ability of one replisome component, Ctf4, to act as a hub and functionally link these processes during DNA replication to ensure genome maintenance.

Single-molecule characterization of SV40 replisome and novel factors: human FPC and Mcm10

The simian virus 40 (SV40) replisome only encodes for its helicase; large T-antigen (L-Tag), while relying on the host for the remaining proteins, making it an intriguing model system. Despite being one of the earliest reconstituted eukaryotic systems, the interactions coordinating its activities and the identification of new factors remain largely unexplored. Herein, we in vitro reconstituted the SV40 replisome activities at the single-molecule level, including DNA unwinding by L-Tag and the single-stranded DNA-binding protein Replication Protein A (RPA), primer extension by DNA polymerase δ, and their concerted leading-strand synthesis. We show that RPA stimulates the processivity of L-Tag without altering its rate and that DNA polymerase δ forms a stable complex with L-Tag during leading-strand synthesis. Furthermore, similar to human and budding yeast Cdc45-MCM-GINS helicase, L-Tag uses the fork protection complex (FPC) and the mini-chromosome maintenance protein 10 (Mcm10) during synthesis. Hereby, we demonstrate that FPC increases this rate, and both FPC and Mcm10 increase the processivity by stabilizing stalled replisomes and increasing their chances of restarting synthesis. The detailed kinetics and novel factors of the SV40 replisome establish it as a closer mimic of the host replisome and expand its application as a model replication system.

The MCM2-7 Complex: Roles beyond DNA Unwinding

The MCM2-7 complex is a hexameric protein complex that serves as a DNA helicase. It unwinds the DNA double helix during DNA replication, thereby providing the single-stranded replication template. In recent years, it has become clear that the MCM2-7 complex has additional functions that extend well beyond its role in DNA replication. Through physical and functional interactions with different pathways, it impacts other nuclear events and activities, including folding of the genome, histone inheritance, chromosome segregation, DNA damage sensing and repair, and gene transcription. Collectively, the diverse roles of the MCM2-7 complex suggest it plays a critical role in maintaining genome integrity by integrating the regulation of DNA replication with other pathways in the nucleus.

Identification of Selective ATP-Competitive CMG Helicase Inhibitors for Cancer Intervention that Disrupt CMG-Replisome Function

The human CMG helicase (Cdc45-MCM-GINS) is a novel target for anti-cancer therapy due to tumor-specific weaknesses in CMG function induced by oncogenic changes and the need for CMG function during recovery from replicative stresses such as chemotherapy. Here, we developed an orthogonal biochemical screening approach and identified selective CMG inhibitors (CMGi) that inhibit ATPase and helicase activities in an ATP-competitive manner at low micromolar concentrations. Structure-activity information and in silico docking indicate that CMGi occupy ATP binding sites and channels within MCM subunits leading to the ATP clefts, which are likely used for ATP/ADP ingress or egress. CMGi inhibit cell growth and DNA replication using multiple molecular mechanisms. CMGi block helicase assembly steps that require ATP binding/hydrolysis by the MCM complex, specifically MCM ring assembly on DNA and GINS recruitment to DNA-loaded MCM hexamers. During S-phase, inhibition of MCM ATP binding/hydrolysis by CMGi causes a 'reverse allosteric' dissociation of Cdc45/GINS from the CMG that destabilizes the replisome and disrupts interactions with Ctf4, Mcm10, and DNA polymerase-α, -δ, -ε, resulting in DNA damage. These novel CMGi are selectively toxic toward tumor cells and define a new class of CMG helicase-targeted anti-cancer compounds with distinct mechanisms of action.

WD Repeat and HMG Box DNA Binding Protein 1: An Oncoprotein at the Hub of Tumorigenesis and a Novel Therapeutic Target

WD repeat and HMG-box DNA binding protein 1 (WDHD1) is a highly conserved gene from yeast to humans. It actively participates in DNA replication, playing a crucial role in DNA damage repair and the cell cycle, contributing to centromere formation and sister chromosome segregation. Notably, several studies have implicated WDHD1 in the development and progression of diverse tumor types, including esophageal carcinoma, pulmonary carcinoma, and breast carcinoma. Additionally, the inhibitor of WDHD1 has been found to enhance radiation sensitivity, improve drug resistance, and significantly decrease tumor cell proliferation. This comprehensive review aims to provide an overview of the molecular structure, biological functions, and regulatory mechanisms of WDHD1 in tumors, thereby establishing a foundation for future investigations and potential clinical applications of WDHD1.

The TIMELESS effort for timely DNA replication and protection

Accurate replication of the genome is fundamental to cellular survival and tumor prevention. The DNA replication fork is vulnerable to DNA lesions and damages that impair replisome progression, and improper control over DNA replication stress inevitably causes fork stalling and collapse, a major source of genome instability that fuels tumorigenesis. The integrity of the DNA replication fork is maintained by the fork protection complex (FPC), in which TIMELESS (TIM) constitutes a key scaffold that couples the CMG helicase and replicative polymerase activities, in conjunction with its interaction with other proteins associated with the replication machinery. Loss of TIM or the FPC in general results in impaired fork progression, elevated fork stalling and breakage, and a defect in replication checkpoint activation, thus underscoring its pivotal role in protecting the integrity of both active and stalled replication forks. TIM is upregulated in multiple cancers, which may represent a replication vulnerability of cancer cells that could be exploited for new therapies. Here, we discuss recent advances on our understanding of the multifaceted roles of TIM in DNA replication and stalled fork protection, and how its complex functions are engaged in collaboration with other genome surveillance and maintenance factors.

The CMG helicase and cancer: a tumor "engine" and weakness with missing mutations

The replicative Cdc45-MCM-GINS (CMG) helicase is a large protein complex that functions in the DNA melting and unwinding steps as a component of replisomes during DNA replication in mammalian cells. Although the CMG performs this important role in cell growth, the CMG is not a simple bystander in cell cycle events. Components of the CMG, specifically the MCM precursors, are also involved in maintaining genomic stability by regulating DNA replication fork speeds, facilitating recovery from replicative stresses, and preventing consequential DNA damage. Given these important functions, MCM/CMG complexes are highly regulated by growth factors such as TGF-ß1 and by signaling factors such as Myc, Cyclin E, and the retinoblastoma protein. Mismanagement of MCM/CMG complexes when these signaling mediators are deregulated, and in the absence of the tumor suppressor protein p53, leads to increased genomic instability and is a contributor to tumorigenic transformation and tumor heterogeneity. The goal of this review is to provide insight into the mechanisms and dynamics by which the CMG is regulated during its assembly and activation in mammalian genomes, and how errors in CMG regulation due to oncogenic changes promote tumorigenesis. Finally, and most importantly, we highlight the emerging understanding of the CMG helicase as an exploitable vulnerability and novel target for therapeutic intervention in cancer.

Identification of GINS1 as a therapeutic target in the cancer patients infected with COVID-19: a bioinformatics and system biology approach

BACKGROUND

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused a series of biological changes in cancer patients which have rendered the original treatment ineffective and increased the difficulty of clinical treatment. However, the clinical treatment for cancer patients infected with COVID-19 is currently unavailable. Since bioinformatics is an effective method to understand undiscovered biological functions, pharmacological targets, and therapeutic mechanisms. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of COVID-19 infection in cancer patients and to search the potential treatments.

METHODS

Firstly, we obtained the COVID-19-associated genes from seven databases and analyzed the cancer pathogenic genes from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases, respectively. The Cancer/COVID-19-associated genes were shown by Venn analyses. Moreover, we demonstrated the signaling pathways and biological functions of pathogenic genes in Cancer/COVID-19.

RESULTS

We identified that Go-Ichi-Ni-San complex subunit 1 (GINS1) is the potential therapeutic target in Cancer/COVID-19 by GEPIA. The high expression of GINS1 was not only promoting the development of cancers but also affecting their prognosis. Furthermore, eight potential compounds of Cancer/COVID-19 were identified from CMap and molecular docking analysis.

CONCLUSION

We revealed the GINS1 is a potential therapeutic target in cancer patients infected with COVID-19 for the first time, as COVID-19 will be a severe and prolonged pandemic. However, the findings have not been verified actually cancer patients infected with COVID-19, and further studies are needed to demonstrate the functions of GINS1 and the clinical treatment of the compounds.

Hypomorphic GINS3 variants alter DNA replication and cause Meier-Gorlin syndrome

The eukaryotic CDC45/MCM2-7/GINS (CMG) helicase unwinds the DNA double helix during DNA replication. The GINS subcomplex is required for helicase activity and is, therefore, essential for DNA replication and cell viability. Here, we report the identification of 7 individuals from 5 unrelated families presenting with a Meier-Gorlin syndrome–like (MGS-like) phenotype associated with hypomorphic variants of GINS3, a gene not previously associated with this syndrome. We found that MGS-associated GINS3 variants affecting aspartic acid 24 (D24) compromised cell proliferation and caused accumulation of cells in S phase. These variants shortened the protein half-life, altered key protein interactions at the replisome, and negatively influenced DNA replication fork progression. Yeast expressing MGS-associated variants of PSF3 (the yeast GINS3 ortholog) also displayed impaired growth, S phase progression defects, and decreased Psf3 protein stability. We further showed that mouse embryos homozygous for a D24 variant presented intrauterine growth retardation and did not survive to birth, and that fibroblasts derived from these embryos displayed accelerated cellular senescence. Taken together, our findings implicate GINS3 in the pathogenesis of MGS and support the notion that hypomorphic variants identified in this gene impaired cell and organismal growth by compromising DNA replication.

The Involvement of WDHD1 in the Occurrence of Esophageal Cancer as a Downstream Target of PI3K/AKT Pathway

Esophageal cancer is one of the most common malignant tumors in the world, which is characterized by high incidence, strong invasiveness, high mortality, and poor prognosis. At present, the therapies include surgery, endoscopic resection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. The five-year survival rate of esophageal cancer has not been significantly improved, although the medical level has been continuously improved and the management and application of different therapies have been improved day by day. At present, an abnormal gene expression is still regarded as an important factor in the occurrence and development of esophageal cancer. WD repeat and HMG-box DNA binding protein 1(WDHD1), as a key gene, plays an important role in the occurrence of esophageal cancer. It is known that the protein encoded by WDHD1 is the downstream target of the PI3K/AKT pathway. When PI3Ks is activated by extracellular signals, PI(4,5)P2 on the inner side of the plasma membrane will be converted into PI(3,4,5)P3. Then, PI(3,4,5)P3 can be converted into PI(3,4)P2,PI(4)P and PI(3)P by dephosphorylation of some regulatory factors. PI(3,4,5)P3 recruited AKT to the plasma membrane and combined with its pH domain, resulting in conformational change of AKT. Subsequently, AKT was completely activated by PDK1 and PDK2 and begins to move to the cytoplasm and nucleus. In this process, AKT continuously phosphorylates downstream substrates. WDHD1, as a downstream target of AKT, is also phosphorylated and induces DNA replication. Besides the abnormal regulation of cells by other downstream targets of AKT, it also becomes a potential pathway that may eventually lead to the occurrence of esophageal cancer.

The Initiation of Eukaryotic DNA Replication

DNA replication in eukaryotic cells initiates from large numbers of sites called replication origins. Initiation of replication from these origins must be tightly controlled to ensure the entire genome is precisely duplicated in each cell cycle. This is accomplished through the regulation of the first two steps in replication: loading and activation of the replicative DNA helicase. Here we describe what is known about the mechanism and regulation of these two reactions from a genetic, biochemical, and structural perspective, focusing on recent progress using proteins from budding yeast. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biochemistry, Volume 91 is June 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

The Effect of Dia2 Protein Deficiency on the Cell Cycle, Cell Size, and Recruitment of Ctf4 Protein in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cells have evolved elaborate mechanisms to regulate DNA replication machinery and cell cycles in response to DNA damage and replication stress in order to prevent genomic instability and cancer. The E3 ubiquitin ligase SCFDia2 in S. cerevisiae is involved in the DNA replication and DNA damage stress response, but its effect on cell growth is still unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the absence of Dia2 prolongs the cell cycle by extending both S- and G2/M-phases while, at the same time, activating the S-phase checkpoint. In these conditions, Ctf4-an essential DNA replication protein and substrate of Dia2-prolongs its binding to the chromatin during the extended S- and G2/M-phases. Notably, the prolonged cell cycle when Dia2 is absent is accompanied by a marked increase in cell size. We found that while both DNA replication inhibition and an absence of Dia2 exerts effects on cell cycle duration and cell size, Dia2 deficiency leads to a much more profound increase in cell size and a substantially lesser effect on cell cycle duration compared to DNA replication inhibition. Our results suggest that the increased cell size in dia2∆ involves a complex mechanism in which the prolonged cell cycle is one of the driving forces.

The Interplay of Cohesin and the Replisome at Processive and Stressed DNA Replication Forks

The cohesin complex facilitates faithful chromosome segregation by pairing the sister chromatids after DNA replication until mitosis. In addition, cohesin contributes to proficient and error-free DNA replication. Replisome progression and establishment of sister chromatid cohesion are intimately intertwined processes. Here, we review how the key factors in DNA replication and cohesion establishment cooperate in unperturbed conditions and during DNA replication stress. We discuss the detailed molecular mechanisms of cohesin recruitment and the entrapment of replicated sister chromatids at the replisome, the subsequent stabilization of sister chromatid cohesion via SMC3 acetylation, as well as the role and regulation of cohesin in the response to DNA replication stress.

Rice and Arabidopsis homologs of yeast CHROMOSOME TRANSMISSION FIDELITY PROTEIN 4 commonly interact with Polycomb complexes but exert divergent regulatory functions

Both genetic and epigenetic information must be transferred from mother to daughter cells during cell division. The mechanisms through which information about chromatin states and epigenetic marks like histone 3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) are transferred have been characterized in animals; these processes are less well understood in plants. Here, based on characterization of a dwarf rice (Oryza sativa) mutant (dwarf-related wd40 protein 1, drw1) deficient for yeast CTF4 (CHROMOSOME TRANSMISSION FIDELITY PROTEIN 4), we discovered that CTF4 orthologs in plants use common cellular machinery yet accomplish divergent functional outcomes. Specifically, drw1 exhibited no flowering-related phenotypes (as in the putatively orthologous Arabidopsis thaliana eol1 mutant), but displayed cell cycle arrest and DNA damage responses. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that DRW1 sustains normal cell cycle progression by modulating the expression of cell cycle inhibitors KIP-RELATED PROTEIN 1 (KRP1) and KRP5, and show that these effects are mediated by DRW1 binding their promoters and increasing H3K27me3 levels. Thus, although CTF4 orthologs ENHANCER OF LHP1 1 (EOL1) in Arabidopsis and DRW1 in rice are both expressed uniquely in dividing cells, commonly interact with several Polycomb complex subunits, and promote H3K27me3 deposition, we now know that their regulatory functions diverged substantially during plant evolution. Moreover, our work experimentally illustrates specific targets of CTF4/EOL1/DRW1, their protein-proteininteraction partners, and their chromatin/epigenetic effects in plants.

WDHD1 is essential for the survival of PTEN-inactive triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive type of breast cancer that lacks the oestrogen receptor, progesterone receptor and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2, making it difficult to target therapeutically. Targeting synthetic lethality is an alternative approach for cancer treatment. TNBC shows frequent loss of phosphatase and tensin homologue (PTEN) expression, which is associated with poor prognosis and treatment response. To identify PTEN synthetic lethal interactions, TCGA analysis coupled with a whole-genome siRNA screen in isogenic PTEN-negative and -positive cells were performed. Among the candidate genes essential for the survival of PTEN-inactive TNBC cells, WDHD1 (WD repeat and high-mobility group box DNA-binding protein 1) expression was increased in the low vs. high PTEN TNBC samples. It was also the top hit in the siRNA screen and its knockdown significantly inhibited cell viability in PTEN-negative cells, which was further validated in 2D and 3D cultures. Mechanistically, WDHD1 is important to mediate a high demand of protein translation in PTEN-inactive TNBC. Finally, the importance of WDHD1 in TNBC was confirmed in patient samples obtained from the TCGA and tissue microarrays with clinic-pathological information. Taken together, as an essential gene for the survival of PTEN-inactive TNBC cells, WDHD1 could be a potential biomarker or a therapeutic target for TNBC.

Molecular mechanisms of eukaryotic origin initiation, replication fork progression, and chromatin maintenance

Eukaryotic DNA replication is a highly dynamic and tightly regulated process. Replication involves several dozens of replication proteins, including the initiators ORC and Cdc6, replicative CMG helicase, DNA polymerase α-primase, leading-strand DNA polymerase ε, and lagging-strand DNA polymerase δ. These proteins work together in a spatially and temporally controlled manner to synthesize new DNA from the parental DNA templates. During DNA replication, epigenetic information imprinted on DNA and histone proteins is also copied to the daughter DNA to maintain the chromatin status. DNA methyltransferase 1 is primarily responsible for copying the parental DNA methylation pattern into the nascent DNA. Epigenetic information encoded in histones is transferred via a more complex and less well-understood process termed replication-couple nucleosome assembly. Here, we summarize the most recent structural and biochemical insights into DNA replication initiation, replication fork elongation, chromatin assembly and maintenance, and related regulatory mechanisms.

Myc and the Replicative CMG Helicase: The Creation and Destruction of Cancer: Myc Over-Activation of CMG Helicases Drives Tumorigenesis and Creates a Vulnerability in CMGs for Therapeutic Intervention

Myc-driven tumorigenesis involves a non-transcriptional role for Myc in over-activating replicative Cdc45-MCM-GINS (CMG) helicases. Excessive stimulation of CMG helicases by Myc mismanages CMG function by diminishing the number of reserve CMGs necessary for fidelity of DNA replication and recovery from replicative stresses. One potential outcome of these events is the creation of DNA damage that alters genomic structure/function, thereby acting as a driver for tumorigenesis and tumor heterogeneity. Intriguingly, another potential outcome of this Myc-induced CMG helicase over-activation is the creation of a vulnerability in cancer whereby tumor cells specifically lack enough unused reserve CMG helicases to recover from fork-stalling drugs commonly used in chemotherapy. This review provides molecular and clinical support for this provocative hypothesis that excessive activation of CMG helicases by Myc may not only drive tumorigenesis, but also confer an exploitable "reserve CMG helicase vulnerability" that supports developing innovative CMG-focused therapeutic approaches for cancer management.

Ctf4 organizes sister replisomes and Pol α into a replication factory

The current view is that eukaryotic replisomes are independent. Here we show that Ctf4 tightly dimerizes CMG helicase, with an extensive interface involving Psf2, Cdc45, and Sld5. Interestingly, Ctf4 binds only one Pol α-primase. Thus, Ctf4 may have evolved as a trimer to organize two helicases and one Pol α-primase into a replication factory. In the 2CMG–Ctf4₃–1Pol α-primase factory model, the two CMGs nearly face each other, placing the two lagging strands toward the center and two leading strands out the sides. The single Pol α-primase is centrally located and may prime both sister replisomes. The Ctf4-coupled-sister replisome model is consistent with cellular microscopy studies revealing two sister forks of an origin remain attached and are pushed forward from a protein platform. The replication factory model may facilitate parental nucleosome transfer during replication.

RecQL4 tethering on the pre-replicative complex induces unscheduled origin activation and replication stress in human cells

Sequential activation of DNA replication origins is precisely programmed and critical to maintaining genome stability. RecQL4, a member of the conserved RecQ family of helicases, plays an essential role in the initiation of DNA replication in mammalian cells. Here, we showed that RecQL4 protein tethered on the pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) induces early activation of late replicating origins during S phase. Tethering of RecQL4 or its N terminus on pre-RCs via fusion with Orc4 protein resulted in the recruitment of essential initiation factors, such as Mcm10, And-1, Cdc45, and GINS, increasing nascent DNA synthesis in late replicating origins during early S phase. In this origin activation process, tethered RecQL4 was able to recruit Cdc45 even in the absence of cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activity, whereas CDK phosphorylation of RecQL4 N terminus was required for interaction with and origin recruitment of And-1 and GINS. In addition, forced activation of replication origins by RecQL4 tethering resulted in increased replication stress and the accumulation of ssDNAs, which can be recovered by transcription inhibition. Collectively, these results suggest that recruitment of RecQL4 to replication origins is an important step for temporal activation of replication origins during S phase. Further, perturbation of replication timing control by unscheduled origin activation significantly induces replication stress, which is mostly caused by transcription-replication conflicts.

AND-1 fork protection function prevents fork resection and is essential for proliferation

AND-1/Ctf4 bridges the CMG helicase and DNA polymerase alpha, facilitating replication. Using an inducible degron system in avian cells, we find that AND-1 depletion is incompatible with proliferation, owing to cells accumulating in G2 with activated DNA damage checkpoint. Replication without AND-1 causes fork speed slow-down and accumulation of long single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) gaps at the replication fork junction, with these regions being converted to DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) in G2. Strikingly, resected forks and DNA damage accumulation in G2, but not fork slow-down, are reverted by treatment with mirin, an MRE11 nuclease inhibitor. Domain analysis of AND-1 further revealed that the HMG box is important for fast replication but not for proliferation, whereas conversely, the WD40 domain prevents fork resection and subsequent DSB-associated lethality. Thus, our findings uncover a fork protection function of AND-1/Ctf4 manifested via the WD40 domain that is essential for proliferation and averts genome instability.

AND-1, the vertebrate orthologue of Ctf4, is a critical player during DNA replication and for maintenance of genome integrity. Here the authors use a conditional AND-1 depletion system in avian DT40 cells to reveal the consequences of the lack of AND-1 on cell proliferation and DNA replication.

The Human Replicative Helicase, the CMG Complex, as a Target for Anti-cancer Therapy

DNA helicases unwind or rearrange duplex DNA during replication, recombination and repair. Helicases of many pathogenic organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and protozoa have been studied as potential therapeutic targets to treat infectious diseases, and human DNA helicases as potential targets for anti-cancer therapy. DNA replication machineries perform essential tasks duplicating genome in every cell cycle, and one of the important functions of these machineries are played by DNA helicases. Replicative helicases are usually multi-subunit protein complexes, and the minimal complex active as eukaryotic replicative helicase is composed of 11 subunits, requiring a functional assembly of two subcomplexes and one protein. The hetero-hexameric MCM2-7 helicase is activated by forming a complex with Cdc45 and the hetero-tetrameric GINS complex; the Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS (CMG) complex. The CMG complex can be a potential target for a treatment of cancer and the feasibility of this replicative helicase as a therapeutic target has been tested recently. Several different strategies have been implemented and are under active investigations to interfere with helicase activity of the CMG complex. This review focuses on the molecular function of the CMG helicase during DNA replication and its relevance to cancers based on data published in the literature. In addition, current efforts made to identify small molecules inhibiting the CMG helicase to develop anti-cancer therapeutic strategies were summarized, with new perspectives to advance the discovery of the CMG-targeting drugs.

Noise in the Machine: Alternative Pathway Sampling is the Rule During DNA Replication

The astonishing efficiency and accuracy of DNA replication has long suggested that refined rules enforce a single highly reproducible sequence of molecular events during the process. This view was solidified by early demonstrations that DNA unwinding and synthesis are coupled within a stable molecular factory, known as the replisome, which consists of conserved components that each play unique and complementary roles. However, recent single-molecule observations of replisome dynamics have begun to challenge this view, revealing that replication may not be defined by a uniform sequence of events. Instead, multiple exchange pathways, pauses, and DNA loop types appear to dominate replisome function. These observations suggest we must rethink our fundamental assumptions and acknowledge that each replication cycle may involve sampling of alternative, sometimes parallel, pathways. Here, we review our current mechanistic understanding of DNA replication while highlighting findings that exemplify multi-pathway aspects of replisome function and considering the broader implications.

The human CTF4-orthologue AND-1 interacts with DNA polymerase α/primase via its unique C-terminal HMG box

A dynamic multi-protein assembly known as the replisome is responsible for DNA synthesis in eukaryotic cells. In yeast, the hub protein Ctf4 bridges DNA helicase and DNA polymerase and recruits factors with roles in metabolic processes coupled to DNA replication. An important question in DNA replication is the extent to which the molecular architecture of the replisome is conserved between yeast and higher eukaryotes. Here, we describe the biochemical basis for the interaction of the human CTF4-orthologue AND-1 with DNA polymerase α (Pol α)/primase, the replicative polymerase that initiates DNA synthesis. AND-1 has maintained the trimeric structure of yeast Ctf4, driven by its conserved SepB domain. However, the primary interaction of AND-1 with Pol α/primase is mediated by its C-terminal HMG box, unique to mammalian AND-1, which binds the B subunit, at the same site targeted by the SV40 T-antigen for viral replication. In addition, we report a novel DNA-binding activity in AND-1, which might promote the correct positioning of Pol α/primase on the lagging-strand template at the replication fork. Our findings provide a biochemical basis for the specific interaction between two critical components of the human replisome, and indicate that important principles of replisome architecture have changed significantly in evolution.

Regulation and Modulation of Human DNA Polymerase δ Activity and Function

This review focuses on the regulation and modulation of human DNA polymerase δ (Pol δ). The emphasis is on the mechanisms that regulate the activity and properties of Pol δ in DNA repair and replication. The areas covered are the degradation of the p12 subunit of Pol δ, which converts it from a heterotetramer (Pol δ4) to a heterotrimer (Pol δ3), in response to DNA damage and also during the cell cycle. The biochemical mechanisms that lead to degradation of p12 are reviewed, as well as the properties of Pol δ4 and Pol δ3 that provide insights into their functions in DNA replication and repair. The second focus of the review involves the functions of two Pol δ binding proteins, polymerase delta interaction protein 46 (PDIP46) and polymerase delta interaction protein 38 (PDIP38), both of which are multi-functional proteins. PDIP46 is a novel activator of Pol δ4, and the impact of this function is discussed in relation to its potential roles in DNA replication. Several new models for the roles of Pol δ3 and Pol δ4 in leading and lagging strand DNA synthesis that integrate a role for PDIP46 are presented. PDIP38 has multiple cellular localizations including the mitochondria, the spliceosomes and the nucleus. It has been implicated in a number of cellular functions, including the regulation of specialized DNA polymerases, mitosis, the DNA damage response, mouse double minute 2 homolog (Mdm2) alternative splicing and the regulation of the NADPH oxidase 4 (Nox4).

Mechanisms of DNA replication termination

Genome duplication is carried out by pairs of replication forks that assemble at origins of replication and then move in opposite directions. DNA replication ends when converging replication forks meet. During this process, which is known as replication termination, DNA synthesis is completed, the replication machinery is disassembled and daughter molecules are resolved. In this Review, we outline the steps that are likely to be common to replication termination in most organisms, namely, fork convergence, synthesis completion, replisome disassembly and decatenation. We briefly review the mechanism of termination in the bacterium Escherichia coli and in simian virus 40 (SV40) and also focus on recent advances in eukaryotic replication termination. In particular, we discuss the recently discovered E3 ubiquitin ligases that control replisome disassembly in yeast and higher eukaryotes, and how their activity is regulated to avoid genome instability.

Ctf4-related protein recruits LHP1-PRC2 to maintain H3K27me3 levels in dividing cells in Arabidopsis thaliana

Polycomb Repressive Complex (PRC) 2 catalyzes the H3K27me3 modification that warrants inheritance of a repressive chromatin structure during cell division, thereby assuring stable target gene repression in differentiated cells. It is still under investigation how H3K27me3 is passed on from maternal to filial strands during DNA replication; however, cell division can reinforce H3K27me3 coverage at target regions. To identify novel factors involved in the Polycomb pathway in plants, we performed a forward genetic screen for enhancers of the like heterochromatin protein 1 (lhp1) mutant, which shows relatively mild phenotypic alterations compared with other plant PRC mutants. We mapped enhancer of lhp1 (eol) 1 to a gene related to yeast Chromosome transmission fidelity 4 (Ctf4) based on phylogenetic analysis, structural similarities, physical interaction with the CMG helicase component SLD5, and an expression pattern confined to actively dividing cells. A combination of eol1 with the curly leaf (clf) allele, carrying a mutation in the catalytic core of PRC2, strongly enhanced the clf phenotype; furthermore, H3K27me3 coverage at target genes was strongly reduced in eol1 clf double mutants compared with clf single mutants. EOL1 physically interacted with CLF, its partially redundant paralog SWINGER (SWN), and LHP1. We propose that EOL1 interacts with LHP1-PRC2 complexes during replication and thereby participates in maintaining the H3K27me3 mark at target genes.

The structure and polymerase-recognition mechanism of the crucial adaptor protein AND-1 in the human replisome

DNA replication in eukaryotic cells is performed by a multiprotein complex called the replisome, which consists of helicases, polymerases, and adaptor molecules. Human acidic nucleoplasmic DNA-binding protein 1 (AND-1), also known as WD repeat and high mobility group (HMG)-box DNA-binding protein 1 (WDHD1), is an adaptor molecule crucial for DNA replication. Although structural information for the AND-1 yeast ortholog is available, the mechanistic details for how human AND-1 protein anchors the lagging-strand DNA polymerase α (pol α) to the DNA helicase complex (Cdc45-MCM2-7-GINS, CMG) await elucidation. Here, we report the structures of the N-terminal WD40 and SepB domains of human AND-1, as well as a biochemical analysis of the C-terminal HMG domain. We show that AND-1 exists as a homotrimer mediated by the SepB domain. Mutant study results suggested that a positively charged groove within the SepB domain provides binding sites for pol α. Different from its ortholog protein in budding yeast, human AND-1 is recruited to the CMG complex, mediated by unknown participants other than Go Ichi Ni San. In addition, we show that AND-1 binds to DNA in vitro, using its C-terminal HMG domain. In conclusion, our findings provide important insights into the mechanistic details of human AND-1 function, advancing our understanding of replisome formation during eukaryotic replication.

PDIP46 (DNA polymerase δ interacting protein 46) is an activating factor for human DNA polymerase δ

PDIP46 (SKAR, POLDIP3) was discovered through its interaction with the p50 subunit of human DNA polymerase δ (Pol δ). Its functions in DNA replication are unknown. PDIP46 associates with Pol δ in cell extracts both by immunochemical and protein separation methods, as well as by ChIP analyses. PDIP46 also interacts with PCNA via multiple copies of a novel PCNA binding motif, the APIMs (AlkB homologue-2 PCNA-Interacting Motif). Sites for both p50 and PCNA binding were mapped to the N-terminal region containing the APIMs. Functional assays for the effects of PDIP46 on Pol δ activity on singly primed ssM13 DNA templates revealed that it is a novel and potent activator of Pol δ. The effects of PDIP46 on Pol δ in primer extension, strand displacement and synthesis through simple hairpin structures reveal a mechanism where PDIP46 facilitates Pol δ4 synthesis through regions of secondary structure on complex templates. In addition, evidence was obtained that PDIP46 is also capable of exerting its effects by a direct interaction with Pol δ, independent of PCNA. Mutation of the Pol δ and PCNA binding region resulted in a loss of PDIP46 functions. These studies support the view that PDIP46 is a novel accessory protein for Pol δ that is involved in cellular DNA replication. This raises the possibility that altered expression of PDIP46 or its mutation may affect Pol δ functions in vivo, and thereby be a nexus for altered genomic stability.

The Eukaryotic Replisome Goes Under the Microscope

The machinery at the eukaryotic replication fork has seen many new structural advances using electron microscopy and crystallography. Recent structures of eukaryotic replisome components include the Mcm2-7 complex, the CMG helicase, DNA polymerases, a Ctf4 trimer hub and the first look at a core replisome of 20 different proteins containing the helicase, primase, leading polymerase and a lagging strand polymerase. The eukaryotic core replisome shows an unanticipated architecture, with one polymerase sitting above the helicase and the other below. Additionally, structures of Mcm2 bound to an H3/H4 tetramer suggest a direct role of the replisome in handling nucleosomes, which are important to DNA organization and gene regulation. This review provides a summary of some of the many recent advances in the structure of the eukaryotic replisome.

MCM: one ring to rule them all

Precise replication of the eukaryotic genome is achieved primarily through strict regulation of the enzyme responsible for DNA unwinding, the replicative helicase. The motor of this helicase is a hexameric AAA+ ATPase called MCM. The loading of MCM onto DNA and its subsequent activation and disassembly are each restricted to separate cell cycle phases; this ensures that a functional replisome is only built once at any replication origin. In recent years, biochemical and structural studies have shown that distinct conformational changes in MCM, each requiring post-translational modifications and/or the activity of other replication proteins, define the various stages of the chromosome replication cycle. Here, we review recent progress in this area.

The N Terminus of the Retinoblastoma Protein Inhibits DNA Replication via a Bipartite Mechanism Disrupted in Partially Penetrant Retinoblastomas

The N-terminal domain of the retinoblastoma (Rb) tumor suppressor protein (RbN) harbors in-frame exon deletions in partially penetrant hereditary retinoblastomas and is known to impair cell growth and tumorigenesis. However, how such RbN deletions contribute to Rb tumor- and growth-suppressive functions is unknown. Here we establish that RbN directly inhibits DNA replication initiation and elongation using a bipartite mechanism involving N-terminal exons lost in cancer. Specifically, Rb exon 7 is necessary and sufficient to target and inhibit the replicative CMG helicase, resulting in the accumulation of inactive CMGs on chromatin. An independent N-terminal loop domain, which forms a projection, specifically blocks DNA polymerase α (Pol-α) and Ctf4 recruitment without affecting DNA polymerases ε and δ or the CMG helicase. Individual disruption of exon 7 or the projection in RbN or Rb, as occurs in inherited cancers, partially impairs the ability of Rb/RbN to inhibit DNA replication and block G1-to-S cell cycle transit. However, their combined loss abolishes these functions of Rb. Thus, Rb growth-suppressive functions include its ability to block replicative complexes via bipartite, independent, and additive N-terminal domains. The partial loss of replication, CMG, or Pol-α control provides a potential molecular explanation for how N-terminal Rb loss-of-function deletions contribute to the etiology of partially penetrant retinoblastomas.

The architecture of a eukaryotic replisome

At the eukaryotic DNA replication fork, it is widely believed that the Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS (CMG) helicase is positioned in front to unwind DNA and that DNA polymerases trail behind the helicase. Here we used single-particle EM to directly image a Saccharomyces cerevisiae replisome. Contrary to expectations, the leading strand Pol ɛ is positioned ahead of CMG helicase, whereas Ctf4 and the lagging-strand polymerase (Pol) α-primase are behind the helicase. This unexpected architecture indicates that the leading-strand DNA travels a long distance before reaching Pol ɛ, first threading through the Mcm2-7 ring and then making a U-turn at the bottom and reaching Pol ɛ at the top of CMG. Our work reveals an unexpected configuration of the eukaryotic replisome, suggests possible reasons for this architecture and provides a basis for further structural and biochemical replisome studies.

Significant role of Psf3 expression in non-small-cell lung cancer

The GINS complex associates with cell division cycle (Cdc) protein 45 and mini‐chromosome maintenance (Mcm) proteins 2–7 to form the Cdc45–Mcm–GINS (CMG) complex, which is essential for DNA duplication. One member of the GINS complex is Psf3. We previously found that increased Psf3 expression was strongly associated with poor survival in lung adenocarcinoma. Here, we investigated the role of Psf3 expression in non‐small‐cell lung cancer (NSCLC). We verified Psf3 expression in human NSCLC tissues (180 patients) and cell lines. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the overexpression of Psf3 was significantly associated with vessel invasion (P = 0.016), lymphatic invasion (P = 0.002), and pleural invasion (P = 0.036). The overall survival rate in patients with Psf3 overexpression was significantly lower than that in patients without Psf3 overexpression (P = 0.006). Multivariate survival analysis revealed Psf3 expression to be an independent risk factor for an unfavorable outcome (P = 0.049). A proximal ligation assay showed interactions between Psf3 and other CMG components (such as Mcm2 and Cdc45) in both NSCLC specimens and cell lines, indicating that Psf3 acted as the CMG complex, which could lead to excessive proliferation. Knockdown of Psf3 inhibited the proliferation of both cell lines by delaying the S phase, which revealed that Psf3 played an important role in cancer proliferation. Thus, Psf3 acted as the CMG complex, promoting excessive proliferation. These results suggest that Psf3 inhibition might be a therapeutic target for NSCLC with Psf3 overexpression.

Replisome function during replicative stress is modulated by histone h3 lysine 56 acetylation through Ctf4

Histone H3 lysine 56 acetylation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is required for the maintenance of genome stability under normal conditions and upon DNA replication stress. Here we show that in the absence of H3 lysine 56 acetylation replisome components become deleterious when replication forks collapse at natural replication block sites. This lethality is not a direct consequence of chromatin assembly defects during replication fork progression. Rather, our genetic analyses suggest that in the presence of replicative stress H3 lysine 56 acetylation uncouples the Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS DNA helicase complex and DNA polymerases through the replisome component Ctf4. In addition, we discovered that the N-terminal domain of Ctf4, necessary for the interaction of Ctf4 with Mms22, an adaptor protein of the Rtt101-Mms1 E3 ubiquitin ligase, is required for the function of the H3 lysine 56 acetylation pathway, suggesting that replicative stress promotes the interaction between Ctf4 and Mms22. Taken together, our results indicate that Ctf4 is an essential member of the H3 lysine 56 acetylation pathway and provide novel mechanistic insights into understanding the role of H3 lysine 56 acetylation in maintaining genome stability upon replication stress.

A proposal: Evolution of PCNA's role as a marker of newly replicated DNA

Processivity clamps that hold DNA polymerases to DNA for processivity were the first proteins known to encircle the DNA duplex. At the time, polymerase processivity was thought to be the only function of ring shaped processivity clamps. But studies from many laboratories have identified numerous proteins that bind and function with sliding clamps. Among these processes are mismatch repair and nucleosome assembly. Interestingly, there exist polymerases that are highly processive and do not require clamps. Hence, DNA polymerase processivity does not intrinsically require that sliding clamps evolved for this purpose. We propose that polymerases evolved to require clamps as a way of ensuring that clamps are deposited on newly replicated DNA. These clamps are then used on the newly replicated daughter strands, for processes important to genomic integrity, such as mismatch repair and the assembly of nucleosomes to maintain epigenetic states of replicating cells during development.

MCM Paradox: Abundance of Eukaryotic Replicative Helicases and Genomic Integrity

As a crucial component of DNA replication licensing system, minichromosome maintenance (MCM) 2–7 complex acts as the eukaryotic DNA replicative helicase. The six related MCM proteins form a heterohexamer and bind with ORC, CDC6, and Cdt1 to form the prereplication complex. Although the MCMs are well known as replicative helicases, their overabundance and distribution patterns on chromatin present a paradox called the “MCM paradox.” Several approaches had been taken to solve the MCM paradox and describe the purpose of excess MCMs distributed beyond the replication origins. Alternative functions of these MCMs rather than a helicase had also been proposed. This review focuses on several models and concepts generated to solve the MCM paradox coinciding with their helicase function and provides insight into the concept that excess MCMs are meant for licensing dormant origins as a backup during replication stress. Finally, we extend our view towards the effect of alteration of MCM level. Though an excess MCM constituent is needed for normal cells to withstand stress, there must be a delineation of the threshold level in normal and malignant cells. This review also outlooks the future prospects to better understand the MCM biology.

Switch on the engine: how the eukaryotic replicative helicase MCM2-7 becomes activated

A crucial step during eukaryotic initiation of DNA replication is the correct loading and activation of the replicative DNA helicase, which ensures that each replication origin fires only once. Unregulated DNA helicase loading and activation, as it occurs in cancer, can cause severe DNA damage and genomic instability. The essential mini-chromosome maintenance proteins 2-7 (MCM2-7) represent the core of the eukaryotic replicative helicase that is loaded at DNA replication origins during G1-phase of the cell cycle. The MCM2-7 helicase activity, however, is only triggered during S-phase once the holo-helicase Cdc45-MCM2-7-GINS (CMG) has been formed. A large number of factors and several kinases interact and contribute to CMG formation and helicase activation, though the exact mechanisms remain unclear. Crucially, upon DNA damage, this reaction is temporarily halted to ensure genome integrity. Here, we review the current understanding of helicase activation; we focus on protein interactions during CMG formation, discuss structural changes during helicase activation, and outline similarities and differences of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic helicase activation process.