1
|
Choi N, Schlücker S. Convergence of Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering with Molecular Diagnostics: A Perspective on Future Directions. ACS NANO 2024; 18:5998-6007. [PMID: 38345242 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c11370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Molecular diagnostics (MD) is widely employed in multiple scientific disciplines, such as oncology, pathogen detection, forensic investigations, and the pharmaceutical industry. Techniques such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) revolutionized the rapid and accurate identification of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA). More recently, CRISPR and its CRISPR-associated protein (Cas) have been a ground-breaking discovery that is the latest revolution in molecular biology, including MD. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is a very attractive alternative to fluorescence as the currently most widely used optical readout in MD. In this Perspective, milestones in the development of MD, SERS-PCR, and next-generation approaches to MD, such as Specific High-Sensitivity Enzymatic Reporter UnLOCKing (SHERLOCK) and DNA Endonuclease-Targeted CRISPR Trans Reporter (DETECTR), are briefly summarized. Our perspective on the future convergence of SERS with MD is focused on SERS-based CRISPR/Cas (SERS-CRISPR) since we anticipate many promising applications in this rapidly emerging field. We predict that major future developments will exploit the advantages of real-time monitoring with the superior brightness, photostability, and spectral multiplexing potential of SERS nanotags in an automated workflow for rapid assays under isothermal, amplification-free conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Namhyun Choi
- Physical Chemistry I, Department of Chemistry, and Center of Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE) & Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen (UDE), 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schlücker
- Physical Chemistry I, Department of Chemistry, and Center of Nanointegration Duisburg-Essen (CENIDE) & Center of Medical Biotechnology (ZMB), University of Duisburg-Essen (UDE), 45141 Essen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Graczyk A, Radzikowska-Cieciura E, Kaczmarek R, Pawlowska R, Chworos A. Modified Nucleotides for Chemical and Enzymatic Synthesis of Therapeutic RNA. Curr Med Chem 2023; 30:1320-1347. [PMID: 36239720 DOI: 10.2174/0929867330666221014111403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, RNA has emerged as a medium with a broad spectrum of therapeutic potential, however, for years, a group of short RNA fragments was studied and considered therapeutic molecules. In nature, RNA plays both functions, with coding and non-coding potential. For RNA, like any other therapeutic, to be used clinically, certain barriers must be crossed. Among them, there are biocompatibility, relatively low toxicity, bioavailability, increased stability, target efficiency and low off-target effects. In the case of RNA, most of these obstacles can be overcome by incorporating modified nucleotides into its structure. This may be achieved by both, in vitro and in vivo biosynthetic methods, as well as chemical synthesis. Some advantages and disadvantages of each approach are summarized here. The wide range of nucleotide analogues has been tested for their utility as monomers for RNA synthesis. Many of them have been successfully implemented, and a lot of pre-clinical and clinical studies involving modified RNA have been carried out. Some of these medications have already been introduced into clinics. After the huge success of RNA-based vaccines that were introduced into widespread use in 2020, and the introduction to the market of some RNA-based drugs, RNA therapeutics containing modified nucleotides appear to be the future of medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Graczyk
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Ewa Radzikowska-Cieciura
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Renata Kaczmarek
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Roza Pawlowska
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| | - Arkadiusz Chworos
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Centre of Molecular and Macromolecular Studies, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sienkiewicza 112, 90-363 Lodz, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gómez-González B, Aguilera A. Origin matters: spontaneous DNA-RNA hybrids do not form in trans as a source of genome instability. Curr Genet 2020; 67:93-97. [PMID: 33095299 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-020-01117-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Multiple exogenous and endogenous genotoxic agents threaten the integrity of the genome, but one major source of spontaneous DNA damage is the formation of unscheduled DNA-RNA hybrids. These can be genetically detected by their ability to induce recombination. The origin of spontaneous hybrids has been mainly attributed to the nascent RNA formed co-transcriptionally in cis invading its own DNA template. However, it was unclear whether hybrids could also be spontaneously generated by RNA produced in a different locus (in trans). Using new genetic systems in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we recently tested whether hybrids could be formed in trans and compromise genome integrity. Whereas we detected recombinogenic DNA-RNA hybrids in cis and in a Rad51-independent manner, we found no evidence for recombinogenic DNA-RNA hybrids to be formed with RNAs produced in trans. Here, we further discuss the implications in the field for the origin of genetic instability and the threats coming from RNAs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Belén Gómez-González
- Centro Andaluz de Biología Molecular y Medicina Regenerativa (CABIMER), Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Seville, Spain.,Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - Andrés Aguilera
- Centro Andaluz de Biología Molecular y Medicina Regenerativa (CABIMER), Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC, Seville, Spain. .,Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Young AP, Jackson DJ, Wyeth RC. A technical review and guide to RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8806. [PMID: 32219032 PMCID: PMC7085896 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a powerful tool to visualize target messenger RNA transcripts in cultured cells, tissue sections or whole-mount preparations. As the technique has been developed over time, an ever-increasing number of divergent protocols have been published. There is now a broad selection of options available to facilitate proper tissue preparation, hybridization, and post-hybridization background removal to achieve optimal results. Here we review the technical aspects of RNA-FISH, examining the most common methods associated with different sample types including cytological preparations and whole-mounts. We discuss the application of commonly used reagents for tissue preparation, hybridization, and post-hybridization washing and provide explanations of the functional roles for each reagent. We also discuss the available probe types and necessary controls to accurately visualize gene expression. Finally, we review the most recent advances in FISH technology that facilitate both highly multiplexed experiments and signal amplification for individual targets. Taken together, this information will guide the methods development process for investigators that seek to perform FISH in organisms that lack documented or optimized protocols.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander P Young
- Department of Biology, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS, Canada
| | - Daniel J Jackson
- Department of Geobiology, Georg-August Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Russell C Wyeth
- Department of Biology, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Islam MK, Jackson PJM, Thurston DE, Rahman KM. Methylene-linked bis-phenylbenzimidazoles - a new scaffold to target telomeric DNA/RNA hybrid duplex. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:4424-4428. [PMID: 29498732 DOI: 10.1039/c7ob02709e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We report a series of novel methylene-linked bis-phenylbenzimidazoles intercalators that stabilize telomeric DNA/RNA hybrid (tDRH) structures by up to 7.2 °C at a 1 μM ligand concentration while having negligible affinity for DNA/DNA duplexes, although with a low affinity for quadruplex DNA. We have used molecular modelling studies to rationalize this selectivity, concluding that the methylene spacer between the terminal benzimidazole and phenylene moieties plays a key role in facilitating the bis-intercalating process. This scaffold may be used to develop chemical tools or new therapeutics to selectively target the telomeric DNA/RNA duplex without affecting normal genomic DNA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M K Islam
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 9NH, UK.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Fry M. Predictive hypotheses are ineffectual in resolving complex biochemical systems. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE LIFE SCIENCES 2018; 40:25. [PMID: 29560537 DOI: 10.1007/s40656-018-0192-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Scientific hypotheses may either predict particular unknown facts or accommodate previously-known data. Although affirmed predictions are intuitively more rewarding than accommodations of established facts, opinions divide whether predictive hypotheses are also epistemically superior to accommodation hypotheses. This paper examines the contribution of predictive hypotheses to discoveries of several bio-molecular systems. Having all the necessary elements of the system known beforehand, an abstract predictive hypothesis of semiconservative mode of DNA replication was successfully affirmed. However, in defining the genetic code whose biochemical basis was unclear, hypotheses were only partially effective and supplementary experimentation was required for its conclusive definition. Markedly, hypotheses were entirely inept in predicting workings of complex systems that included unknown elements. Thus, hypotheses did not predict the existence and function of mRNA, the multiple unidentified components of the protein biosynthesis machinery, or the manifold unknown constituents of the ubiquitin-proteasome system of protein breakdown. Consequently, because of their inability to envision unknown entities, predictive hypotheses did not contribute to the elucidation of cation theories remained the sole instrument to explain complex bio-molecular systems, the philosophical question of alleged advantage of predictive over accommodative hypotheses became inconsequential.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Fry
- Department of Biochemistry, Rappaport Faculty of Medicine, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, POB 9649, 31096, Haifa, Israel.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bhatia V, Herrera-Moyano E, Aguilera A, Gómez-González B. The Role of Replication-Associated Repair Factors on R-Loops. Genes (Basel) 2017; 8:E171. [PMID: 28653981 PMCID: PMC5541304 DOI: 10.3390/genes8070171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Revised: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The nascent RNA can reinvade the DNA double helix to form a structure termed the R-loop, where a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is accompanied by a DNA-RNA hybrid. Unresolved R-loops can impede transcription and replication processes and lead to genomic instability by a mechanism still not fully understood. In this sense, a connection between R-loops and certain chromatin markers has been reported that might play a key role in R-loop homeostasis and genome instability. To counteract the potential harmful effect of R-loops, different conserved messenger ribonucleoprotein (mRNP) biogenesis and nuclear export factors prevent R-loop formation, while ubiquitously-expressed specific ribonucleases and DNA-RNA helicases resolve DNA-RNA hybrids. However, the molecular events associated with R-loop sensing and processing are not yet known. Given that R-loops hinder replication progression, it is plausible that some DNA replication-associated factors contribute to dissolve R-loops or prevent R-loop mediated genome instability. In support of this, R-loops accumulate in cells depleted of the BRCA1, BRCA2 or the Fanconi anemia (FA) DNA repair factors, indicating that they play an active role in R-loop dissolution. In light of these results, we review our current view of the role of replication-associated DNA repair pathways in preventing the harmful consequences of R-loops.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vaibhav Bhatia
- Andalusian Center for Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine-CABIMER, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Av. Américo Vespucio 24, 41092 Seville, Spain.
| | - Emilia Herrera-Moyano
- Andalusian Center for Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine-CABIMER, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Av. Américo Vespucio 24, 41092 Seville, Spain.
| | - Andrés Aguilera
- Andalusian Center for Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine-CABIMER, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Av. Américo Vespucio 24, 41092 Seville, Spain.
| | - Belén Gómez-González
- Andalusian Center for Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine-CABIMER, Universidad de Sevilla-CSIC-Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Av. Américo Vespucio 24, 41092 Seville, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Wood BR. The importance of hydration and DNA conformation in interpreting infrared spectra of cells and tissues. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:1980-98. [PMID: 26403652 DOI: 10.1039/c5cs00511f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Since Watson and Crick's historical papers on the structure and function of DNA based on Rosalind Franklin's and Maurice Wilkin's X-ray diffraction patterns tremendous scientific curiosity has been aroused by the unique and dynamic structure of the molecule of life. A-DNA and B-DNA represent different conformations of the DNA molecule, which is stabilised by hydrogen interactions between base pairs, stacking interactions between neighboring bases and long-range intra- and inter-backbone forces. This review highlights the contribution Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy has made to the understanding of DNA conformation in relation to hydration and its potential role in clinical diagnostics. The review will first begin by elucidating the main forms of DNA conformation found in nature and the general structures of the A, B and Z forms. This is followed by a detailed critique on infrared spectroscopy applied to DNA conformation highlighting pivotal studies on isolated DNA, polynucleotides, nucleoprotein and nucleohistone complexes. A discussion on the potential of diagnosing cancer using FTIR spectroscopy based on the detection of DNA bands in cells and tissues will ensue, highlighting the recent studies investigating the conformation of DNA in hydrated and dehydrated cells. The method of hydration as a way to facilitate DNA conformational band assignment will be discussed and the conformational change to the A-form upon dehydration will be used to explain the reason for the apparent lack of FTIR DNA signals observed in fixed or air-dried cells and tissues. The advantages of investigating B-DNA in the hydrated state, as opposed to A-DNA in the dehydrated state, are exemplified in a series of studies that show: (1) improved quantification of DNA in cells; (2) improved discrimination and reproducibility of FTIR spectra recorded of cells progressing through the cell cycle; (3) insights into the biological significance of A-DNA as evidenced by an interesting study on bacteria, which can survive desiccation and at the same time undergo the B-A-B transition. Finally, the importance of preserving the B-DNA conformation for the diagnosis of cancer is put forward as way to improve the sensitivity of this powerful technique.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bayden R Wood
- Centre for Biospectroscopy, School of Chemistry, Monash University, 3800, Victoria, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Perrigue PM, Erdmann VA, Barciszewski J. Alexander Rich: In Memoriam. Trends Biochem Sci 2015; 40:623-4. [PMID: 26439533 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2015.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
10
|
Evans K, Bhamra I, Wheelhouse RT, Arnold JRP, Cosstick R, Fisher J. Stabilization of a Bimolecular Triplex by 3'-S-Phosphorothiolate Modifications: An NMR and UV Thermal Melting Investigation. Chemistry 2015; 21:7278-84. [PMID: 25802084 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201500369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Triplexes formed from oligonucleic acids are key to a number of biological processes. They have attracted attention as molecular biology tools and as a result of their relevance in novel therapeutic strategies. The recognition properties of single-stranded nucleic acids are also relevant in third-strand binding. Thus, there has been considerable activity in generating such moieties, referred to as triplex forming oligonucleotides (TFOs). Triplexes, composed of Watson-Crick (W-C) base-paired DNA duplexes and a Hoogsteen base-paired RNA strand, are reported to be more thermodynamically stable than those in which the third strand is DNA. Consequently, synthetic efforts have been focused on developing TFOs with RNA-like structural properties. Here, the structural and stability studies of such a TFO, composed of deoxynucleic acids, but with 3'-S-phosphorothiolate (3'-SP) linkages at two sites is described. The modification results in an increase in triplex melting temperature as determined by UV absorption measurements. (1) H NMR analysis and structure generation for the (hairpin) duplex component and the native and modified triplexes revealed that the double helix is not significantly altered by the major groove binding of either TFO. However, the triplex involving the 3'-SP modifications is more compact. The 3'-SP modification was previously shown to stabilise G-quadruplex and i-motif structures and therefore is now proposed as a generic solution to stabilising multi-stranded DNA structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Evans
- School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT (UK)
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
What history tells us XXXIII. Molecular hybridization: a problematic tool for the study of differentiation and development (1960-1980). J Biosci 2014; 39:29-32. [PMID: 24499787 DOI: 10.1007/s12038-014-9417-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
12
|
Suresh G, Priyakumar UD. DNA–RNA hybrid duplexes with decreasing pyrimidine content in the DNA strand provide structural snapshots for the A- to B-form conformational transition of nucleic acids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:18148-55. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp02478h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
A gradual increase in the deoxypyrimidine content in DNA–RNA hybrids leads to B- to A-form nucleic acid transition. Possible factors that govern nuclease activity on hybrid duplexes are presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gorle Suresh
- Centre for Computational Natural Sciences and Bioinformatics
- International Institute of Information Technology
- Hyderabad 500 032, India
| | - U. Deva Priyakumar
- Centre for Computational Natural Sciences and Bioinformatics
- International Institute of Information Technology
- Hyderabad 500 032, India
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ivančić-Baće I, Al Howard J, Bolt EL. Tuning in to interference: R-loops and cascade complexes in CRISPR immunity. J Mol Biol 2012; 422:607-616. [PMID: 22743103 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2012.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2012] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Stable RNA-DNA hybrids formed by invasion of an RNA strand into duplex DNA, termed R-loops, are notorious for provoking genome instability especially when they arise during transcription. However, in some instances (DNA replication and class switch recombination), R-loops are useful so long as their existence is carefully managed to avoid them persisting. A recent flow of research papers establishes a newly discovered use for R-loops as key intermediates in a prokaryotic immune system called CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats). Structures and mechanism of ribonucleoprotein complexes ("Cascades") that form CRISPR R-loops highlight precision targeting of duplex DNA that has sequence characteristics marking it as foe, enabling nucleolytic destruction of DNA and recycling the Cascade. We review these significant recent breakthroughs in understanding targeting/interference stages of CRISPR immunity and discuss questions arising, including a possible link between targeting and adaptive immunity in prokaryotes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Ivančić-Baće
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jamieson Al Howard
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Edward L Bolt
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham Medical School, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Romainczyk O, Endeward B, Prisner TF, Engels JW. The RNA-DNA hybrid structure determined by EPR, CD and RNase H1. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2011; 7:1050-2. [PMID: 21336379 DOI: 10.1039/c0mb00258e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A or B: RNA-DNA hybrids, key intermediates in gene regulation, were classified by pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR) in combination with CD spectroscopy into two classes, interpreted as A- and B-like structures. RNase H1 cleavage of these hybrids is in full agreement with these assignments, cleaving the hybrids with A-like geometry preferentially. This combined analytical approach allows the interpretation and eventually the design of more easily cleavable hybrids as needed for the antisense technology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olga Romainczyk
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Max-von-Laue-Str 7, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
McIvor EI, Polak U, Napierala M. New insights into repeat instability: role of RNA•DNA hybrids. RNA Biol 2010; 7:551-8. [PMID: 20729633 DOI: 10.4161/rna.7.5.12745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Expansion of tandem repeat sequences is responsible for more than 20 human diseases. Several cis elements and trans factors involved in repeat instability (expansion and contraction) have been identified. However no comprehensive model explaining large intergenerational or somatic changes of the length of the repeating sequences exists. Several lines of evidence, accumulated from different model studies, indicate that transcription through repeat sequences is an important factor promoting their instability. The persistent interaction between transcription template DNA and nascent RNA (RNA•DNA hybrids, R loops) was shown to stimulate genomic instability. Recently, we demonstrated that cotranscriptional RNA•DNA hybrids are preferentially formed at GC-rich trinucleotide and tetranucleotide repeat sequences in vitro as well as in human genomic DNA. Additionally, we showed that cotranscriptional formation of RNA•DNA hybrids at CTG•CAG and GAA•TTC repeats stimulate instability of these sequences in both E. coli and human cells. Our results suggest that persistent RNA•DNA hybrids may also be responsible for other downstream effects of expanded trinucleotide repeats, including gene silencing. Considering the extent of transcription through the human genome as well as the abundance of GC-rich and/or non-canonical DNA structure forming tandem repeats, RNA•DNA hybrids may represent a common mutagenic conformation. Hence, R loops are potentially attractive therapeutic target in diseases associated with genomic instability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth I McIvor
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Center for Cancer Epigenetics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
McCarthy BJ. Arrangement of base sequences in deoxyribonucleic Acid. BACTERIOLOGICAL REVIEWS 2010; 31:215-29. [PMID: 16350206 PMCID: PMC408285 DOI: 10.1128/br.31.4.215-229.1967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B J McCarthy
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98105
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
The DNA x RNA hybrid duplexes are functionally important structures in gene expression that are underutilized as potential drug targets. Several tools are described here for the discovery and characterization of small molecules capable of the selective recognition of DNA x RNA hybrid structures. Competition dialysis and thermal denaturation of mixtures of polynucleotide structures can be used to identify small molecules that bind selectively to DNA x RNA hybrids. An assay that measures small molecule inhibition of RNase H can be used to measure a functional response to these ligands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jonathan B. Chaires
- James Graham Brown Cancer Center, University of Louisville, 529 S. Jackson St., Louisville, KY 40202 USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Potential sites of triple-helical nucleic acid formation in chromosomes of Rhynchosciara (Diptera: Sciaridae) and Drosophila melanogaster. Chromosome Res 2009; 17:821-32. [PMID: 19763852 DOI: 10.1007/s10577-009-9075-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2009] [Revised: 05/19/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Antibodies to specific nucleic acid conformations are amongst the methods that have allowed the study of non-canonical (Watson-Crick) DNA structures in higher organisms. In this work, the structural limitations for the immunological detection of DNA.RNA hybrid duplexes were examined using specific RNA homopolymers as probes for homopolymer polydeoxyadenylic acid (poly(dA)).polydeoxythymidylic acid (poly(dT))-rich regions of Rhynchosciara americana (Diptera: Sciaridae) chromosomes. Anti-DNA.RNA duplexes did not react with the complex formed between chromosomal poly(dA) and exogenous polyuridylic acid (poly(rU)). Additionally, poly(rU) prevented the detection of polyadenylic acid.poly(dT) hybrid duplexes preformed in situ. These results raised the possibility that three-stranded structures rather than duplexes were formed in chromosomal sites. To test this hypothesis, the specificity of antibodies to triple-helical nucleic acids was reassessed employing distinct nucleic acid configurations. These antibodies were raised to the poly(dA).poly(rU).poly(rU) complex and have been used here for the first time in immunocytochemistry. Anti-triplex antibodies recognised the complex poly(dA).poly(rU).poly(rU) assembled with poly(rU) in poly(dA).poly(dT)-rich homopolymer regions of R. americana chromosomes. The antibodies could not detect short triplex stretches, suggesting the existence of constraints for triple-helix detection, probably related to triplex tract length. In addition, anti-poly(dA).poly(rU).poly(rU) antibodies reacted with the pericentric heterochromatin of RNase-treated polytene chromosomes of R. americana and Drosophila melanogaster. In apparent agreement with data obtained in cell types from other organisms, the results of this work suggest that significant triple-helix DNA extensions can be formed in pericentric regions of these species.
Collapse
|
19
|
Abstract
In the mid-1950s, RNA was a somewhat mysterious molecule with unknown three-dimensional structure and little hard evidence of biological function. Changes began with the 1956 discoveries of the RNA double helix and the phenomenon of nucleic acid hybridization. Discovery of the DNA-RNA hybrid helix in 1960 opened the door to understanding biological information transfer. Single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis made it possible to precisely define the RNA double helix, discover the novel L-shaped fold of transfer RNA (tRNA), and finally reveal the complete three-dimensional tRNA structure by 1974. By then, a functional understanding of protein synthesis had developed with an appreciation of the various roles of different RNA species. This was the era of RNA awakening.
Collapse
|
20
|
Recognition of the unique structure of DNA:RNA hybrids. Biochimie 2008; 90:1026-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2008.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Accepted: 04/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
21
|
Abstract
The discovery, 50 years ago, that RNA could form a double helix made possible a number of advances, including an understanding that led, decades later, to the discovery of microRNAs and RNA interference. Remarkably, the first nucleic acid hybridization reaction was also described in the same report.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Varshavsky
- Division of Biology, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Rich A. Why RNA and DNA have different structures. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2006:1-8. [PMID: 16594608 DOI: 10.1007/3-540-27262-3_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
In the early years of molecular biology--over 50 years ago--we were faced with many unknowns. A significant one at the time was the relationship between DNA and RNA, both in terms of structure and function. Function is often a reflection of structure. Here I outline some of the early research in this area, especially for RNA structure, which was completely unknown when we started.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Rich
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA, 02139, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Rich
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Affiliation(s)
- Jerard Hurwitz
- Program of Molecular Biology, Sloan-Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10021, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Abstract
I had the good luck to start research at the dawn of molecular biology when it was possible to ask fundamental questions about the nature of the nucleic acids and how information is transferred in living systems. The search for answers led me into many different areas, often with the question of how molecular structure leads to biological function. Early work in this period provided some of the roots supporting the current explosive developments in life sciences. Here I give a brief account of my development, describe some contributions, and provide a hint of the exhilaration in discovering new things. Most of all, I had the good fortune to have inspiring teachers, stimulating colleagues, and excellent students.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Rich
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139-430, USA
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Rich
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Egli M, Usman N, Rich A. Conformational influence of the ribose 2'-hydroxyl group: Crystal structures of DNA-RNA chimeric duplexes. Biochemistry 2002. [DOI: 10.1021/bi00064a004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
28
|
Rait VK, Shaw BR. Boranophosphates support the RNase H cleavage of polyribonucleotides. ANTISENSE & NUCLEIC ACID DRUG DEVELOPMENT 1999; 9:53-60. [PMID: 10192289 DOI: 10.1089/oli.1.1999.9.53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Modification of the phosphodiester linkages in DNA by replacing one of the nonbridging oxygens with borane, BH3, produces an isoelectronic mimic of DNA called boranophosphates. Nonstereoregular oligodeoxyribonucleoside all-boranophosphates are shown here for the first time to elicit the RNase H hydrolysis of polyribonucleotides. We compared the ability of three types of dodecamers (dodecathymidine phosphate, phosphorothioate, and boranophosphate) to mediate the cleavage of poly(A) by Escherichia coli RNase H1. The rates of poly(A) hydrolysis induced by boranophosphates were 76-fold (at 20 degrees C) and 18-fold (at 30 degrees C) greater than the rates induced by dodecathymidine phosphate. In conjunction with the measured melting temperatures for each heteroduplex, carried out under the same conditions as the RNAse H cleavage experiments, the data establish an inverse relationship between the heteroduplex thermostability and the rate of poly(A) hydrolysis. Chromatographic analysis revealed another correlation: the higher the heteroduplex Tm, the higher the pApA:pApApA ratio in the corresponding hydrolysates. The specific content of these final products provides insight into the relative contribution of RNase H1 exonucleolytic/endonucleolytic mechanisms, with a low ratio for the lower melting heteroduplexes reflecting more endonucleolytic-type hydrolysis. In total, our data support the concept that antisense molecules with a weakened hybridization potential enhance the rate of hydrolysis of RNA in RNA-DNA hybrids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V K Rait
- P.M. Gross Chemical Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708-0346, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
YANKOFSKY SA, SPIEGELMAN S. The identification of the ribosomal RNA cistron by sequence complementarity. I. Specificity of complex formation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 48:1069-78. [PMID: 14008983 PMCID: PMC220906 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.48.6.1069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
30
|
CHAMBERLIN M, BERG P. Deoxyribo ucleic acid-directed synthesis of ribonucleic acid by an enzyme from Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 48:81-94. [PMID: 13877961 PMCID: PMC285509 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.48.1.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 548] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
31
|
HALL BD, SPIEGELMAN S. Sequence complementarity of T2-DNA and T2-specific RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 47:137-63. [PMID: 13710749 PMCID: PMC221635 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.47.2.137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
32
|
GOODMAN HM, RICH A. Formation of a DNA-soluble RNA hybrid and its relation to the origin, evolution, and degeneracy of soluble RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 48:2101-9. [PMID: 13949092 PMCID: PMC221130 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.48.12.2101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
33
|
OCHOA S, BURMA DP, KROGER H, WEILL JD. Deoxyribonucleic acid-dependent incorporation of nucleotides from nucleoside triphosphates into ribonucleic acid. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 47:670-9. [PMID: 13730224 PMCID: PMC221421 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.47.5.670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
34
|
GRUNBERG-MANAGO M. ENZYMATIC SYNTHESIS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS. PROGRESS IN BIOPHYSICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1996; 13:175-239. [PMID: 14135921 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6107(63)80016-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
35
|
BREMER H, KONRAD MW. A COMPLEX OF ENZYMATICALLY SYNTHESIZED RNA AND TEMPLATE DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 51:801-8. [PMID: 14172994 PMCID: PMC300165 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.51.5.801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
|
36
|
Affiliation(s)
- A Rich
- Biology Department, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 02139, USA
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Abstract
The effect of iron(II) bleomycin on a DNA-RNA heteroduplex was investigated using a substrate formed by reverse transcription of Escherichia coli 5S ribosomal RNA. Both strands of the heteroduplex were cleaved by FeII.BLM A2 at comparable concentrations; complete digestion of both strands was observed using 5 microM FeII.BLM A2. The DNA strand of the heteroduplex was cleaved predominantly at 5'-G-pyr-3' sites; the sites of cleavage of the DNA strand were a subset of those observed for the corresponding DNA strand of a DNA duplex of identical sequence. The sites of cleavage of the RNA strand of the heteroduplex involved both purines and pyrimidines and were found to be different than the sites of cleavage of the 5S rRNA alone, demonstrating that cleavage of the former must actually have involved heteroduplex recognition by FeII.BLM A2. Both the DNA and RNA strands of the heteroduplex were cleaved by FeII.BLM A2 in the presence of physiological concentrations of Mg2+, consistent with the possibility that DNA-RNA heteroduplexes may be therapeutically relevant targets for bleomycin.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Base Sequence
- Binding Sites
- Bleomycin/chemistry
- Bleomycin/pharmacology
- DNA, Bacterial/chemistry
- DNA, Bacterial/drug effects
- DNA, Bacterial/genetics
- DNA, Ribosomal/chemistry
- DNA, Ribosomal/drug effects
- DNA, Ribosomal/genetics
- Escherichia coli/genetics
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Molecular Structure
- Nucleic Acid Heteroduplexes/chemistry
- Nucleic Acid Heteroduplexes/drug effects
- Nucleic Acid Heteroduplexes/genetics
- RNA, Bacterial/chemistry
- RNA, Bacterial/drug effects
- RNA, Bacterial/genetics
- RNA, Ribosomal, 5S/chemistry
- RNA, Ribosomal, 5S/drug effects
- RNA, Ribosomal, 5S/genetics
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M A Morgan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22901
| | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Mesner LD, Hockensmith JW. Probing the energetics of oligo(dT).poly(dA) by laser cross-linking. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992; 89:2521-5. [PMID: 1557354 PMCID: PMC48693 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.89.7.2521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimentally determined changes in free energy (delta G(o)) for thymine-thymine interactions occurring in oligo(dT).poly(dA) are dependent on the method used for preparation of the double-stranded template. A rapid laser cross-linking technique was used to examine the equilibrium between oligomers of (dT) bound to either poly(dA) or poly(rA). The single-pulse (4-6 nsec) ultraviolet laser excitation of these polynucleotides causes pyrimidine dimer formation between contiguous oligo(dT) molecules, resulting in a "ligation" of the oligomers. Analysis of the resulting data using standard binding isotherms allowed determination of the degree of cooperativity existing between oligomers. Using the cooperativity, delta G(o), delta H(o), and delta S(o) are calculated, thereby providing thermodynamic parameters for this interaction. The measured cooperativity of oligo(dT) molecule interactions allows direct calculation of the number of 3' ends available as nicked structures or the number of 3' ends associated with gaps for oligo(dT).poly(dA) when used as a substrate for DNA synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L D Mesner
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Virginia Health Sciences Center, Charlottesville 22908
| | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
Wang AH, Fujii S, van Boom JH, van der Marel GA, van Boeckel SA, Rich A. Molecular structure of r(GCG)d(TATACGC): a DNA--RNA hybrid helix joined to double helical DNA. Nature 1982; 299:601-4. [PMID: 6181416 DOI: 10.1038/299601a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The molecule r(GCG)d(TATACGC) is self-complementary and forms two DNA--RNA hybrid segments surrounding a central region of double helical DNA; its molecular structure has been solved by X-ray analysis. All three parts of the molecule adopt a conformation which is close to that seen in the 11-fold RNA double helix. The conformation of the ribonucleotides is partly determined by water molecules bridging between the ribose O2' hydroxyl group and cytosine O2. The hybrid-DNA duplex junction contains no structural discontinuities. However, the central DNA TATA sequence has some structural irregularities.
Collapse
|
40
|
Stavrianopoulos JG, Gambino-Giuffrida A, Chargaff E. Ribonuclease H of calf thymus: substrate specificity, activation, inhibition. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1976; 73:1087-91. [PMID: 1063391 PMCID: PMC430205 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.73.4.1087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
When the action of highly purified specimens of ribonuclease H (hybrid nuclease; RNA-DNA hybrid ribonucleotidohydrolase; EC 3.1.4.34) of calf thymus on a wide selection of homopolymer hybrids was studied, the extent, and even the occurrence, of hydrolysis was found to be governed by the interplay of several factors: the composition of the ribo strand, the length of the deoxyribo strand, and the nature of the activating metal. Mn2+ activates the enzymic cleavage of all hybrid combinations, Mg2+ only of those containing purine ribo strands, Co2+ only of poly(A) hybrids. A 1:1 hybrid of phage f1 DNA and RNA is, however, split in the presence of any of these activators. Hybrids with deoxyribo tetranucleotides can still be cleaved, but not with dinucleotides. The behavior of hybrids containing covalently linked runs of ribo and deoxyribopolynucleotides was studied with the hybrid poly(dT)-poly(A)7-(dA)X]. This hybrid is attacked by ribonuclease H so that the bulk of the resulting poly(dA) still retains one covalently linked riboadenylic acid end group, whereas a small proportion carries a ribo dinucleotide. Inhibition studies showed that ribonuclease H is inactivated irreversibly by pretreatment with S-adenosylmethionine at 35 degrees, but not at 0 degrees. S-Adenosylhomocysteine also is inhibitory, but not irreversibly; also it is essentially limited to the inhibition of the cleavage of purine ribo strands. When the enzyme is exposed simultaneously to both inhibitors, irreversible inactivation is diminished considerably.
Collapse
|
41
|
Biological, biochemical, and physicochemical evidence for the existence of the polyadenylic-polyuridylic-polyinosinic acid triplex. J Biol Chem 1975. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)41632-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
42
|
Perlgut LE, Byers DL, Jope RS, Khamvinwathna V. Formation of triple-stranded bovine DNA in vitro. Nature 1975; 254:86-7. [PMID: 1167628 DOI: 10.1038/254086a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
43
|
Giller SA, Shomshtein ZA, Popova TA. Analogs of pyrimidine mono- and polynucleotides. Chem Heterocycl Compd (N Y) 1975. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00470089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
44
|
Stollar BD, Raso V. Antibodies recognise specific structures of triple-helical polynucleotides built on poly(A) or poly(dA). Nature 1974; 250:231-4. [PMID: 4136532 DOI: 10.1038/250231a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
45
|
Principles and practices of nucleic acid hybridization. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1971; 11:259-301. [PMID: 4947609 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(08)60330-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
46
|
Midgley J. Chapter XII Hybridization of Microbial RNA and DNA. J Microbiol Methods 1971. [DOI: 10.1016/s0580-9517(08)70530-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
|
47
|
McConaughy BL, McCarthy BJ. Related base sequences in the DNA of simple and complex organisms. V. The specificity of interactions between oligonucleotides and denatured DNA. Biochem Genet 1970; 4:409-24. [PMID: 4991031 DOI: 10.1007/bf00485757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
48
|
Richardson JP. RNA polymerase and the control of RNA synthesis. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1969; 9:75-116. [PMID: 4888951 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(08)60768-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
49
|
Britten RJ, Kohne DE. Repeated sequences in DNA. Hundreds of thousands of copies of DNA sequences have been incorporated into the genomes of higher organisms. Science 1968; 161:529-40. [PMID: 4874239 DOI: 10.1126/science.161.3841.529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1853] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
50
|
|