Effect of amino acid substitutions on the catalytic and regulatory properties of aspartate transcarbamoylase

The first high pH structure of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase

The activity and cooperativity of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase) vary as a function of pH, with a maximum of both parameters at approximately pH 8.3. Here we report the first X-ray structure of unliganded ATCase at pH 8.5, to establish a structural basis for the observed Bohr effect. The overall conformation of the active site at pH 8.5 more closely resembles the active site of the enzyme in the R-state structure than other T-state structures. In the structure of the enzyme at pH 8.5 the 80's loop is closer to its position in R-state structures. A unique electropositive channel, comprised of residues from the 50's region, is observed in this structure, with Arg54 positioned in the center of the channel. The planar angle between the carbamoyl phosphate and aspartate domains of the catalytic chain is more open at pH 8.5 than in ATCase structures determined at lower pH values. The structure of the enzyme at pH 8.5 also exhibits lengthening of a number of interactions in the interface between the catalytic and regulatory chains, whereas a number of interactions between the two catalytic trimers are shortened. These alterations in the interface between the upper and lower trimers may directly shift the allosteric equilibrium and thus the cooperativity of the enzyme. Alterations in the electropositive environment of the active site and alterations in the position of the catalytic chain domains may be responsible for the enhanced activity of the enzyme at pH 8.5.

The crystal structures of ornithine carbamoyltransferase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis and its ternary complex with carbamoyl phosphate and L-norvaline reveal the enzyme's catalytic mechanism

Mycobacterium tuberculosis ornithine carbamoyltransferase (Mtb OTC) catalyzes the sixth step in arginine biosynthesis; it produces citrulline from carbamoyl phosphate (CP) and ornithine (ORN). Here, we report the crystal structures of Mtb OTC in orthorhombic (form I) and hexagonal (form II) space groups. The molecules in form II are complexed with CP and l-norvaline (NVA); the latter is a competitive inhibitor of OTC. The asymmetric unit in form I contains a pseudo hexamer with 32 point group symmetry. The CP and NVA in form II induce a remarkable conformational change in the 80s and the 240s loops with the displacement of these loops towards the active site. The displacement of these loops is strikingly different from that seen in other OTC structures. In addition, the ligands induce a domain closure of 4.4 degrees in form II. Sequence comparison of active-site residues of Mtb OTC with several other OTCs of known structure reveals that they are virtually identical. The interactions involving the active-site residues of Mtb OTC with CP and NVA and a modeling study of ORN in the form II structure strongly rule out an earlier proposed mechanistic role of Cys264 in catalysis and suggest a possible mechanism for OTC. Our results strongly support the view that ORN with an already deprotonated N(epsilon) atom is the species that binds to the enzyme and that one of the phosphate oxygen atoms of CP is likely to be involved in accepting a proton from the doubly protonated N(epsilon) atom of ORN. We have interpreted this deprotonation as part of the collapse of the transition state of the reaction.

Human ornithine transcarbamylase: crystallographic insights into substrate recognition and conformational changes

Two crystal structures of human ornithine transcarbamylase (OTCase) complexed with the substrate carbamoyl phosphate (CP) have been solved. One structure, whose crystals were prepared by substituting N-phosphonacetyl-L-ornithine (PALO) liganded crystals with CP, has been refined at 2.4 A (1 A=0.1 nm) resolution to a crystallographic R factor of 18.4%. The second structure, whose crystals were prepared by co-crystallization with CP, has been refined at 2.6 A resolution to a crystallographic R factor of 20.2%. These structures provide important new insights into substrate recognition and ligand-induced conformational changes. Comparison of these structures with the structures of OTCase complexed with the bisubstrate analogue PALO or CP and L-norvaline reveals that binding of the first substrate, CP, induces a global conformational change involving relative domain movement, whereas the binding of the second substrate brings the flexible SMG loop, which is equivalent to the 240s loop in aspartate transcarbamylase, into the active site. The model reveals structural features that define the substrate specificity of the enzyme and that regulate the order of binding and release of products.

The 80s loop of the catalytic chain of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase is critical for catalysis and homotropic cooperativity

The X-ray structure of the Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase with the bisubstrate analog phosphonacetyl-L-aspartate (PALA) bound shows that PALA interacts with Lys84 from an adjacent catalytic chain. To probe the function of Lys84, site-specific mutagenesis was used to convert Lys84 to alanine, threonine, and asparagine. The K84N and K84T enzymes exhibited 0.08 and 0.29% of the activity of the wild-type enzyme, respectively. However, the K84A enzyme retained 12% of the activity of the wild-type enzyme. For each of these enzymes, the affinity for aspartate was reduced 5- to 10-fold, and the affinity for carbamoyl phosphate was reduced 10- to 30-fold. The enzymes K84N and K84T exhibited no appreciable cooperativity, whereas the K84A enzyme exhibited a Hill coefficient of 1.8. The residual cooperativity and enhanced activity of the K84A enzyme suggest that in this enzyme another mechanism functions to restore catalytic activity. Modeling studies as well as molecular dynamics simulations suggest that in the case of only the K84A enzyme, the lysine residue at position 83 can reorient into the active site and complement for the loss of Lys84. This hypothesis was tested by the creation and analysis of the K83A enzyme and a double mutant enzyme (DM) that has both Lys83 and Lys84 replaced by alanine. The DM enzyme has no cooperativity and exhibited 0.18% of wild-type activity, while the K83A enzyme exhibited 61% of wild-type activity. These data suggest that Lys84 is not only catalytically important, but is also essential for binding both substrates and creation of the high-activity, high-affinity active site. Since low-angle X-ray scattering demonstrated that the mutant enzymes can be converted to the R-structural state, the loss of cooperativity must be related to the inability of these mutant enzymes to form the high-activity, high-affinity active site characteristic of the R-functional state of the enzyme.

The allosteric activator ATP induces a substrate-dependent alteration of the quaternary structure of a mutant aspartate transcarbamoylase impaired in active site closure

Aspartate transcarbamoylase from Escherichia coli shows homotropic cooperativity for aspartate as well as heterotropic regulation by nucleotides. Structurally, it consists of two trimeric catalytic subunits and three dimeric regulatory subunits, each chain being comprised of two domains. Glu-50 and Ser-171 are involved in stabilizing the closed conformation of the catalytic chain. Replacement of Glu-50 or Ser-171 by Ala in the holoenzyme has been shown previously to result in marked decreases in the maximal observed specific activity, homotropic cooperativity, and affinity for aspartate (Dembowski NJ, Newton CJ, Kantrowitz ER, 1990, Biochemistry 29:3716-3723; Newton CJ, Kantrowitz ER, 1990, Biochemistry 29:1444-1451). We have constructed a double mutant enzyme combining both mutations. The resulting Glu-50/ser-171-->Ala enzyme is 9-fold less active than the Ser-171-->Ala enzyme, 69-fold less active than the Glu-50-->Ala enzyme, and shows 1.3-fold and 1.6-fold increases in the [S]0.5Asp as compared to the Ser-171-->Ala and Glu-50-->Ala enzymes, respectively. However, the double mutant enzyme exhibits some enhancement of homotropic cooperativity with respect to aspartate, relative to the single mutant enzymes. At subsaturating concentrations of aspartate, the Glu-50/Ser-171 -->Ala enzyme is activated less by ATP than either the Glu-50-->Ala or Ser-171-->Ala enzyme, whereas CTP inhibition is intermediate between that of the two single mutants. As opposed to the wild-type enzyme, the Glu-50/Ser-171 -->Ala enzyme is activated by ATP and inhibited by CTP at saturating concentrations of aspartate. Structural analysis of the Ser-171-->Ala and Glu-50/Ser-171-->Ala enzymes by solution X-ray scattering indicates that both mutants exist in the same T quaternary structure as the wild-type enzyme in the absence of ligands, and in the same R quaternary structure in the presence of saturating N-(phosphonoacetyl)-L-aspartate. However, saturating concentrations of carbamoyl phosphate and succinate are unable to convert a significant fraction of either mutant enzyme population to the R quaternary structure, as has been observed previously for the Glu-50-->Ala enzyme. The curves for both the Ser-171-->Ala and Glu-50/Ser-171-->Ala enzymes obtained in the presence of substoichiometric amounts of PALA are linear combinations of the two extreme T and R states. The structural consequences of nucleotide binding to these two enzymes were also investigated. Most surprisingly, the direction and amplitude of the effect of ATP upon the double mutant enzyme were shown to vary depending upon the substrate analogue used.

Structural similarity between ornithine and aspartate transcarbamoylases of Escherichia coli: characterization of the active site and evidence for an interdomain carboxy-terminal helix in ornithine transcarbamoylase

Predictions of tertiary structures of proteins from their amino acid sequences are facilitated greatly when the structures of homologous proteins are known. On this basis, structural features of Escherichia coli ornithine transcarbamoylase (OTCase) were investigated by site-directed mutagenesis experiments based on the known tertiary structure of the catalytic (c) chain of E. coli aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase). In ATCase, each c chain is composed of two globular domains connected by two interdomain helices, one of which is near the C-terminus and is critical for the in vivo folding of the chains and their assembly into trimers. Each active site is located at the interface between two chains and requires the participation of residues from each of the adjacent chains. OTCase, a trimeric enzyme, has been proposed to be similar in structure to the ATCase trimer on the basis of sequence identity (32%), the nature of the reaction catalyzed by the enzyme, and secondary structure predictions. As shown here, analysis of OTCase and ATCase sequences revealed extensive evolutionary conservation in portions corresponding to the ATCase active site and the C-terminal helix. Truncations and substitutions within the predicted C-terminal helix of OTCase had effects on activity and thermal stability strikingly similar to those caused by analogous alterations in ATCase. Similarly, substitutions at either of two conserved residues, Ser 55 and Lys 86, in the proposed active site of OTCase had deleterious effects parallel to those caused by the analogous ATCase substitutions. Hybrid trimers comprised of chains from both these relatively inactive OTCase mutants exhibited dramatically increased activity, as predicted for shared active sites located at the chain interfaces. These results strongly support the hypothesis that the tertiary and quaternary structures of the two enzymes are similar.

An efficient approach to identify ilvA mutations reveals an amino-terminal catalytic domain in biosynthetic threonine deaminase from Escherichia coli

High-level expression of the regulatory enzyme threonine deaminase in Escherichia coli strains grown on minimal medium that are deficient in the activities of enzymes needed for branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis result in growth inhibition, possibly because of the accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketobutyrate, the product of the committed step in isoleucine biosynthesis. This condition affords a means for selecting genetic variants of threonine deaminase that are deficient in catalysis by suppression of growth inhibition. Strains harboring mutations in ilvA that decreased the catalytic activity of threonine deaminase were found to grow more rapidly than isogenic strains containing wild-type ilvA. Modification of the ilvA gene to introduce additional unique, evenly spaced restriction enzyme sites facilitated the identification of suppressor mutations by enabling small DNA fragments to be subcloned for sequencing. The 10 mutations identified in ilvA code for enzymes with significantly reduced activity relative to that of wild-type threonine deaminase. Values for their specific activities range from 40% of that displayed by wild-type enzyme to complete inactivation as evidenced by failure to complement an ilvA deletion strain to isoleucine prototrophy. Moreover, some mutant enzymes showed altered allosteric properties with respect to valine activation and isoleucine inhibition. The location of the 10 mutations in the 5' two-thirds of the ilvA gene is consistent with suggestions that threonine deaminase is organized functionally with an amino-terminal domain that is involved in catalysis and a carboxy-terminal domain that is important for regulation.

Arginine 54 in the active site of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase is critical for catalysis: a site-specific mutagenesis, NMR, and X-ray crystallographic study

The replacement of Arg-54 by Ala in the active site of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase causes a 17,000-fold loss of activity but does not significantly influence the binding of substrates or substrate analogs (Stebbins, J.W., Xu, W., & Kantrowitz, E.R., 1989, Biochemistry 28, 2592-2600). In the X-ray structure of the wild-type enzyme, Arg-54 interacts with both the anhydride oxygen and a phosphate oxygen of carbamoyl phosphate (CP) (Gouaux, J.E. & Lipscomb, W.N., 1988, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85, 4205-4208). The Arg-54-->Ala enzyme was crystallized in the presence of the transition state analog N-phosphonacetyl-L-aspartate (PALA), data were collected to a resolution limit of 2.8 A, and the structure was solved by molecular replacement. The analysis of the refined structure (R factor = 0.18) indicates that the substitution did not cause any significant alterations to the active site, except that the side chain of the arginine was replaced by two water molecules. 31P-NMR studies indicate that the binding of CP to the wild-type catalytic subunit produces an upfield chemical shift that cannot reflect a significant change in the ionization state of the CP but rather indicates that there are perturbations in the electronic environment around the phosphate moiety when CP binds to the enzyme. The pH dependence of this upfield shift for bound CP indicates that the catalytic subunit undergoes a conformational change with a pKa approximately 7.7 upon CP binding. Furthermore, the linewidth of the 31P signal of CP bound to the Arg-54-->Ala enzyme is significantly narrower than that of CP bound to the wild-type catalytic subunit at any pH, although the change in chemical shift for the CP bound to the mutant enzyme is unaltered. 31P-NMR studies of PALA complexed to the wild-type catalytic subunit indicate that the phosphonate group of the bound PALA exists as the dianion at pH 7.0 and 8.8, whereas in the Arg-54-->Ala catalytic subunit the phosphonate group of the bound PALA exists as the monoanion at pH 7.0 and 8.8. Thus, the side chain of Arg-54 is essential for the proper ionization of the phosphonate group of PALA and by analogy the phosphate group in the transition state. These data support the previously proposed proton transfer mechanism, in which a fully ionized phosphate group in the transition state accepts a proton during catalysis.

Differential scanning calorimetric studies of E. coli aspartate transcarbamylase. III. The denaturational thermodynamics of the holoenzyme with single-site mutations in the catalytic chain

Aspartate transcarbamylase (EC 2.1.3.2) from E. coli is a multimeric enzyme consisting of two catalytic subunits and three regulatory subunits whose activity is regulated by subunit interactions. Differential scanning calorimetric (DSC) scans of the wild-type enzyme consist of two peaks, each comprised of at least two components, corresponding to denaturation of the catalytic and regulatory subunits within the intact holoenzyme (Vickers et al., J. Biol. Chem. 253 (1978) 8493; Edge et al., Biochemistry 27 (1988) 8081). We have examined the effects of nine single-site mutations in the catalytic chains. Three of the mutations (Asp-100-Gly, Glu-86-Gln, and Arg-269-Gly) are at sites at the C1: C2 interface between c chains within the catalytic subunit. These mutations disrupt salt linkages present in both the T and R states of the molecule (Honzatko et al., J. Mol. Biol. 160 (1982) 219; Krause et al., J. Mol. Biol. 193 (1987) 527). The remainder (Lys-164-Ile, Tyr-165-Phe, Glu-239-Gln, Glu-239-Ala, Tyr-240-Phe and Asp-271-Ser) are at the C1: C4 interface between catalytic subunits and are involved in interactions which stabilize either the T or R state. DSC scans of all of the mutants except Asp-100-Gly and Arg-269-Gly consisted of two peaks. At intermediate concentrations, Asp-100-Gly and Arg-269-Gly had only a single peak near the Tm of the regulatory subunit transition in the holoenzyme, although their denaturational profiles were more complex at high and low protein concentrations. The catalytic subunits of Glu-86-Gln, Lys-164-Ile and Asp-271-Ser appear to be significantly destabilized relative to wild-type protein while Tyr-165-Phe and Tyr-240-Phe appear to be stabilized. Values of delta delta G degree cr, the difference between the subunit interaction energy of wild-type and mutant proteins, evaluated as suggested by Brandts et al. (Biochemistry 28 (1989) 8588) range from -3.7 kcal mol-1 for Glu-86-Gln to 2.4 kcal mol-1 for Tyr-165-Phe.

Amino acid substitutions which stabilize aspartate transcarbamoylase in the R state disrupt both homotropic and heterotropic effects

We have used site-specific amino acid substitutions to investigate the linkage between the allosteric properties of arpartate transcarbamoylase and the global conformational transition exhibited by the enzyme upon binding active-site ligands. Two mutationally altered enzymes in which an amino acid substitution had been introduced at a single position in the catalytic polypeptide chain (Lys-164----Glu and Glu-239----Lys) and a third species harboring both of these substitutions (Lys-164:Glu-239----Glu:Lys) were constructed. Sedimentation velocity difference studies were performed in order to assess the effects of the amino acid substitutions on the quaternary structure of the holoenzyme in the absence and presence of various active-site ligands, including the bisubstrate analog, N-(phosphonacetyl)-L-aspartate (PALA), which has been shown previously to promote the allosteric transition. In the absence of ligand, two of the mutationally altered enzymes, Lys-164----Glu and Lys-164:Glu-239----Glu:Lys, existed in the R conformation, isomorphous with that of the PALA-liganded wild-type holoenzyme. These enzymes exhibited no conformational change upon binding PALA. The unliganded Glu-239----Lys enzyme had an average sedimentation coefficient intermediate between that of the unliganded and PALA-liganded states of the wild-type enzyme which could be accounted for in terms of a mixture of T- and R-state molecules. This mutant enzyme was converted to the fully swollen conformation upon binding PALA, phosphate or carbamoyl phosphate. The allosteric properties of the mutationally altered species were investigated by PALA-binding studies and by steady-state enzyme kinetics. In each case, the mutationally altered enzymes were devoid of both homotropic and heterotropic effects, supporting the premise that the allosteric properties of the wild-type enzyme are linked to a ligand-promoted change in quaternary structure.

The regulatory subunit of Escherichia coli aspartate carbamoyltransferase may influence homotropic cooperativity and heterotropic interactions by a direct interaction with the loop containing residues 230-245 of the catalytic chain

A recent x-ray structure of aspartate carbamoyltransferase (carbamoyl-phosphate: L-aspartate carbamoyl-transferase, EC 2.1.3.2) with phosphonoacetamide bound [Gouaux, J. E. & Lipscomb, W. N. (1990) Biochemistry 29, 389-402] shows an interaction between Asp-236 of the catalytic chain and Lys-143 of the regulatory chain. Asp-236 is part of the loop containing residues 230-245 (240s) of the catalytic chain that undergoes a significant conformational change between the tight and the relaxed states of the enzyme. Furthermore, side-chain interactions between the 240s loop and other portions of the enzyme have been shown to be important for the low activity and low affinity of the tight state and the high activity and high affinity of the relaxed state. To determine whether the intersubunit link between Lys-143 of the regulatory chain and Asp-236 of the catalytic chain is important for either homotropic cooperativity and/or the heterotropic interactions in aspartate carbamoyltransferase, site-specific mutagenesis was used to replace Asp-236 with alanine. The mutant enzyme exhibits full activity and a loss of both homotropic cooperativity and heterotropic interactions. Furthermore, the aspartate concentration at half the maximal observed specific activity is reduced by approximately 8-fold. The mutant enzyme exhibits normal thermal stability but drastically altered reactivity toward p-hydroxymercuribenzoate. The catalytic subunit of the mutant and wild-type enzymes have very similar properties. These results, in conjunction with previous experiments, suggest that the intersubunit link involving Asp-236 is involved in the stabilization of the 240s loop in its tight-state position and that the regulatory subunits exert their effect on the catalytic subunits by influencing the position of the 240s loop.

Changes in stability and allosteric properties of aspartate transcarbamoylase resulting from amino acid substitutions in the zinc-binding domain of the regulatory chains

Changes in subunit interaction energies linked to the allosteric transition of the regulatory enzyme aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase; EC 2.1.3.2) from Escherichia coli are localized in part at interfaces between the six catalytic (c) and six regulatory (r) polypeptide chains. Site-directed mutagenesis has been used to construct enzymes with amino acid substitutions in a limited region of the zinc-binding domain of the r chains. Substitution of Ser or His for r114 Cys, one of four cysteines binding the structural zinc ion in the regulatory chain, leads to incorrectly folded chains as shown by the inability to detect stable assembled holoenzyme in cell extracts. Replacement of r111 Asn by Ala at the interface between an r chain and a c chain in the apposing catalytic trimer causes a complete loss of the homotropic and heterotropic effects characteristic of wild-type ATCase. Moreover, sedimentation velocity experiments demonstrated that this mutant enzyme exists in the R ("relaxed") conformation in the absence of active site ligands due to preferential destabilization of the T ("taut") conformation relative to the R state. In contrast, replacement of r113 Asn by Ala at the interface between adjacent r and c chains leads to an increase in the cooperativity of the enzyme. When r139 Lys is replaced by Met, Vmax is reduced by 50% compared to wild-type ATCase, whereas it is increased about 2-fold when r142 Glu is replaced by Asp. Amino acid substitutions in this domain significantly affect subunit interaction energy as measured by rate of subunit exchange when holoenzymes are incubated with isolated catalytic subunits, thus permitting measurements of the effect of the bisubstrate analog N-(phosphonacetyl)-L-asparatate in weakening intersubunit interactions. Subunit exchange increased about 9-fold for the r142 Glu----Asp mutant and almost 20-fold for the r142 Glu----Ala mutant in the presence of the ligand.

A loop involving catalytic chain residues 230-245 is essential for the stabilization of both allosteric forms of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamylase

The allosteric transition of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamylase involves significant alterations in structure at both the quaternary and tertiary levels. On the tertiary level, the 240s loop (residues 230-245 of the catalytic chain) repositions, influencing the conformation of Arg-229, a residue near the aspartate binding site. In the T state, Arg-229 is bent out of the active site and may be stabilized in this position by an interaction with Glu-272. In the R state, the conformation of Arg-229 changes, allowing it to interact with the beta-carboxylate of aspartate, and is stabilized in this position by a specific interaction with Glu-233. In order to ascertain the function of Arg-229, Glu-233, and Glu-272 in the catalytic and cooperative interactions of the enzyme, three mutant enzymes were created by site-specific mutagenesis. Arg-229 was replaced by Ala, while both Glu-233 and Glu-272 were replaced by Ser. The Arg-229----Ala and Glu-233----Ser enzymes exhibit 10,000-fold and 80-fold decreases in maximal activity, respectively, and they both exhibit a 2-fold increase in the aspartate concentration at half the maximal observed velocity, [S]0.5. The Arg-229----Ala enzyme still exhibits substantial homotropic cooperativity, but all cooperativity is lost in the Glu-233----Ser enzyme. The Glu-233----Ser enzyme also shows a 4-fold decrease in the carbamyl phosphate [S]0.5, while the Arg-229----Ala enzyme shows no change in the carbamyl phosphate [S]0.5 compared to the wild-type enzyme. The Glu-272 to Ser mutation results in a slight reduction in maximal activity, an increase in [S]0.5 for both aspartate and carbamyl phosphate, and reduced cooperativity. Analysis of the isolated catalytic subunits from these three mutant enzymes reveals that in each case the changes in the kinetic properties of the isolated catalytic subunit are similar to the changes caused by the mutation in the holoenzyme. PALA was able to activate the Glu-233----Ser enzyme, at low aspartate concentrations, even though the mutant holoenzyme did not exhibit any cooperativity, indicating that cooperative interactions still exist between the active sites in this enzyme. It is proposed that Glu-233 of the 240s loop helps create the high-activity-high-affinity R state by positioning the side chain of Arg-229 for aspartate binding while Glu-272 helps stabilize the low-activity-low-affinity T state by positioning the side chain of Arg-229 so that it cannot interact with aspartate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Electrostatic interactions in the assembly of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamylase

Although ionizable groups are known to play important roles in the assembly, catalytic, and regulatory mechanisms of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamylase, these groups have not been characterized in detail. We report the application of static accessibility modified Tanford-Kirkwood theory to model electrostatic effects associated with the assembly of pairs of chains, subunits, and the holoenzyme. All of the interchain interfaces except R1-R6 are stabilized by electrostatic interactions by -2 to -4 kcal-m-1 at pH 8. The pH dependence of the electrostatic component of the free energy of stabilization of intrasubunit contacts (C1-C2 and R1-R6) is qualitatively different from that of intersubunit contacts (C1-C4, C1-R1, and C1-R4). This difference may allow the transmission of information across subunit interfaces to be selectively regulated. Groups whose calculated pK or charge changes as a result of protein-protein interactions have been identified and the results correlated with available information about their function. Both the 240s loop of the c chain and the region near the Zn(II) ion of the r chain contain clusters of ionizable groups whose calculated pK values change by relatively large amounts upon assembly. These pK changes in turn extend to regions of the protein remote from the interface. The possibility that networks of ionizable groups are involved in transmitting information between binding sites is suggested.

Biocatalysis made to order

Recombinant DNA technology is now being explored to engineer enzyme molecules. It has many far-reaching applications in biocatalytic processes of enzyme engineering. The facts have pursued certain important industrial, biomedical, and environmental problems. These current excitements are mainly focused on the basis of gene cloning and in vitro mutagenesis for overproduction and redesigning of enzymes, as well as their probable implications in industry, antibiotic research, and waste degradation.

Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamylase: the relation between structure and function

The x-ray structures of the allosteric enzyme aspartate transcarbamylase from Escherichia coli have been solved and refined for both allosteric forms. The T form was determined in the presence of the heterotropic inhibitor cytidine triphosphate, CTP, while the R form was determined in the presence of the bisubstrate analog N-phosphonacetyl-L-aspartate. These two x-ray structures provide the starting point for an understanding of how allosteric enzymes are able to control the rates of metabolic pathways. Insights into the mechanisms of both catalysis and homotropic cooperativity have been obtained by using site-directed mutagenesis to probe residues thought to be critical to the function of the enzyme based on these x-ray structures.

Propagation of allosteric changes through the catalytic-regulatory interface of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamylase

Each of two previously isolated strains of Escherichia coli containing a single nonsense codon within the pyrB gene was suppressed with four different nonsense suppressors. The kinetic analysis using crude extracts of these nonsense-suppressed strains indicated that the mutant aspartate transcarbamylases had altered cooperativity and affinity for aspartate as judged by the substrate concentration at half of the maximal velocity. Both pyrB genes were cloned and then sequenced. In both cases, a single base change was identified which converted a glutamine GAC codon into a TAC nonsense codon. Both mutations occurred in the catalytic chain of aspartate transcarbamylase and were identified at positions 108 and 246. The glutamine at position 108 in the wild-type structure is located at the interface between the catalytic and regulatory chains and is involved in a number of interactions with backbone and side chains of the regulatory chain. The glutamine at position 246 in the wild-type structure is located in the 240s loop of the enzyme. Two additional mutant versions of aspartate transcarbamylase were created by site-directed mutagenesis to further investigate the 108-position in the structure, a glutamine to tyrosine substitution at position 108 of the catalytic chain, and an asparagine to glycine change at position 113 of the regulatory chain, a residue which interacts directly with glutamine-108 in the wild-type structure. Both mutant enzymes have reduced affinity for aspartate. However, the Tyr-108 mutant enzyme exhibits a reduced Hill coefficient while the Gly-113 enzyme exhibits an increased Hill coefficient. The response to the allosteric effectors ATP and CTP is also changed for both the mutant enzymes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Tinkering with enzymes: what are we learning?

It is now possible, by site-directed mutagenesis of the gene, to change any amino acid residue in a protein to any other. In enzymology, application of this technique is leading to exciting new insights both into the mechanism of catalysis by particular enzymes, and into the basis of catalysis itself. The precise and often delicate changes that are being made in and near the active sites of enzymes are illuminating the interdependent roles of catalytic groups, and are allowing the first steps to be taken toward the rational alteration of enzyme specificity and reactivity.

Shared active sites in oligomeric enzymes: model studies with defective mutants of aspartate transcarbamoylase produced by site-directed mutagenesis

Many oligomeric enzymes are functional only in the assembled form, and it is often difficult to determine unambiguously why monomers are inactive. In some cases individual monomers cannot fold into stable correct ("native") conformations without contributions from interchain interactions. For other oligomers, catalysis requires the contributions of amino acid residues at the interface between adjacent polypeptide chains, and monomers are inactive because they cannot form complete active sites. A test for the presence of shared sites was devised that is based on the formation of active hybrid oligomers from appropriate inactive parental mutants produced by site-directed mutagenesis. This approach was applied in a study of the catalytic trimer of aspartate transcarbamoylase (aspartate carbamoyltransferase, EC 2.1.3.2) from Escherichia coli, using three mutants, in which Ser-52 was replaced by His, Lys-84 by Gln, or His-134 by Ala. Hybrid trimers formed from the virtually inactive Ser and Lys mutants were 10(5) more active than the parental proteins, and the specific activities of each hybrid were about 33% that of the wild-type trimer, as expected for the scheme based on shared sites. Hybrids from the His and Lys mutants had comparable specific activities. Moreover, one hybrid with approximately 33% activity had one high-affinity binding site for a bisubstrate analog as compared to about three for wild-type trimer. As a further test, hybrids were also formed from wild-type and double-mutant (Lys-84----Gln and His-134----Ala) trimers. The hybrid containing two chains with the double mutation and one wild-type chain had very little activity, and that composed of one double mutant and two wild-type chains had 32% the specific activity of wild-type trimers. This negative complementation experiment is in quantitative accord with the scheme based on shared sites at or near the interfaces between adjacent chains. The techniques used to demonstrate shared active sites in the catalytic subunits of aspartate transcarbamoylase can be applied generally to various types of oligomers (dimers, tetramers, etc.) to determine whether the participation of amino acid residues from adjoining chains is essential for forming active sites in oligomeric enzymes.