Myosin I phosphorylation is increased by chemotactic stimulation

Mitochondrial FAD shortage in SLC25A32 deficiency affects folate-mediated one-carbon metabolism

The SLC25A32 dysfunction is associated with neural tube defects (NTDs) and exercise intolerance, but very little is known about disease-specific mechanisms due to a paucity of animal models. Here, we generated homozygous (Slc25a32Y174C/Y174C and Slc25a32K235R/K235R) and compound heterozygous (Slc25a32Y174C/K235R) knock-in mice by mimicking the missense mutations identified from our patient. A homozygous knock-out (Slc25a32-/-) mouse was also generated. The Slc25a32K235R/K235R and Slc25a32Y174C/K235R mice presented with mild motor impairment and recapitulated the biochemical disturbances of the patient. While Slc25a32-/- mice die in utero with NTDs. None of the Slc25a32 mutations hindered the mitochondrial uptake of folate. Instead, the mitochondrial uptake of flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) was specifically blocked by Slc25a32Y174C/K235R, Slc25a32K235R/K235R, and Slc25a32-/- mutations. A positive correlation between SLC25A32 dysfunction and flavoenzyme deficiency was observed. Besides the flavoenzymes involved in fatty acid β-oxidation and amino acid metabolism being impaired, Slc25a32-/- embryos also had a subunit of glycine cleavage system-dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase damaged, resulting in glycine accumulation and glycine derived-formate reduction, which further disturbed folate-mediated one-carbon metabolism, leading to 5-methyltetrahydrofolate shortage and other folate intermediates accumulation. Maternal formate supplementation increased the 5-methyltetrahydrofolate levels and ameliorated the NTDs in Slc25a32-/- embryos. The Slc25a32K235R/K235R and Slc25a32Y174C/K235R mice had no glycine accumulation, but had another formate donor-dimethylglycine accumulated and formate deficiency. Meanwhile, they suffered from the absence of all folate intermediates in mitochondria. Formate supplementation increased the folate amounts, but this effect was not restricted to the Slc25a32 mutant mice only. In summary, we established novel animal models, which enabled us to understand the function of SLC25A32 better and to elucidate the role of SLC25A32 dysfunction in human disease development and progression.

Myosin 1b functions as an effector of EphB signaling to control cell repulsion

Myosin 1b functions as an effector of EphB2/ephrinB signaling and controls cell morphology and cell repulsion.

Eph receptors and their membrane-tethered ligands, the ephrins, have important functions in embryo morphogenesis and in adult tissue homeostasis. Eph/ephrin signaling is essential for cell segregation and cell repulsion. This process is accompanied by morphological changes and actin remodeling that drives cell segregation and tissue patterning. The actin cortex must be mechanically coupled to the plasma membrane to orchestrate the cell morphology changes. Here, we demonstrate that myosin 1b that can mechanically link the membrane to the actin cytoskeleton interacts with EphB2 receptors via its tail and is tyrosine phosphorylated on its tail in an EphB2-dependent manner. Myosin 1b regulates the redistribution of myosin II in actomyosin fibers and the formation of filopodia at the interface of ephrinB1 and EphB2 cells, which are two processes mediated by EphB2 signaling that contribute to cell repulsion. Together, our results provide the first evidence that a myosin 1 functions as an effector of EphB2/ephrinB signaling, controls cell morphology, and thereby cell repulsion.

Mechanism, regulation, and functional properties of Dictyostelium myosin-1B

Myosin-1B is one of three long tailed class-1 myosins containing an ATP-insensitive actin-binding site in the tail region that are produced in Dictyostelium discoideum. Myosin-1B localizes to actin-rich structures at the leading edge of migrating cells where it has been implicated in the formation and retraction of membrane projections, the recycling of plasma membrane components, and intracellular particle transport. Here, we have used a combination of molecular engineering approaches to describe the kinetic and motile properties of the myosin-1B motor and its regulation by TEDS site phosphorylation. Our results show that myosin-1B is a low duty ratio motor and displays the fastest nucleotide binding kinetics of any of the Dictyostelium class-1 myosins studied so far. Different from Dictyostelium myosin-1D and myosin-1E, dephosphorylated myosin-1B is not inactivated but moves actin filaments efficiently, albeit at an up to 8-fold slower velocity in the in vitro motility assay. A further difference is that myosin-1B lacks the ability to switch between rapid movement and bearing tension upon physiological changes of free Mg2+ ions. In this respect, its motor properties appear to be more closely related to Dictyostelium myosin-2 and rabbit skeletal muscle myosin.

Dictyostelium myosin-IE is a fast molecular motor involved in phagocytosis

Class I myosins are single-headed motor proteins, implicated in various motile processes including organelle translocation, ion-channel gating, and cytoskeleton reorganization. Here we describe the cellular localization of myosin-IE and its role in the phagocytic uptake of solid particles and cells. A complete analysis of the kinetic and motor properties of Dictyostelium discoideum myosin-IE was achieved by the use of motor domain constructs with artificial lever arms. Class I myosins belonging to subclass IC like myosin-IE are thought to be tuned for tension maintenance or stress sensing. In contrast to this prediction, our results show myosin-IE to be a fast motor. Myosin-IE motor activity is regulated by myosin heavy chain phosphorylation, which increases the coupling efficiency between the actin and nucleotide binding sites tenfold and the motile activity more than fivefold. Changes in the level of free Mg(2+) ions, which are within the physiological range, are shown to modulate the motor activity of myosin-IE by inhibiting the release of adenosine diphosphate.

TEDS site phosphorylation of the yeast myosins I is required for ligand-induced but not for constitutive endocytosis of the G protein-coupled receptor Ste2p

The yeast myosins I Myo3p and Myo5p have well established functions in the polarization of the actin cytoskeleton and in the endocytic uptake of the G protein-coupled receptor Ste2p. A number of results suggest that phosphorylation of the conserved TEDS serine of the myosin I motor head by the Cdc42p activated p21-activated kinases Ste20p and Cla4p is required for the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. However, the role of this signaling cascade in the endocytic uptake has not been investigated. Interestingly, we find that Myo5p TEDS site phosphorylation is not required for slow, constitutive endocytosis of Ste2p, but it is essential for rapid, ligand-induced internalization of the receptor. Our results strongly suggest that a kinase activates the myosins I to sustain fast endocytic uptake. Surprisingly, however, despite the fact that only p21-activated kinases are known to phosphorylate the conserved TEDS site, we find that these kinases are not essential for ligand-induced internalization of Ste2p. Our observations indicate that a different signaling cascade, involving the yeast homologues of the mammalian PDK1 (3-phosphoinositide-dependent-protein kinase-1), Phk1p and Pkh2p, and serum and glucocorticoid-induced kinase, Ypk1p and Ypk2p, activate Myo3p and Myo5p for their endocytic function.

Dictyostelium PAKc is required for proper chemotaxis

We have identified a new Dictyostelium p21-activated protein kinase, PAKc, that we demonstrate to be required for proper chemotaxis. PAKc contains a Rac-GTPase binding (CRIB) and autoinhibitory domain, a PAK-related kinase domain, an N-terminal phosphatidylinositol binding domain, and a C-terminal extension related to the Gbetagamma binding domain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ste20, the latter two domains being required for PAKc transient localization to the plasma membrane. In response to chemoattractant stimulation, PAKc kinase activity is rapidly and transiently activated, with activity levels peaking at approximately 10 s. pakc null cells exhibit a loss of polarity and produce multiple lateral pseudopodia when placed in a chemoattractant gradient. PAKc preferentially binds the Dictyostelium Rac protein RacB, and point mutations in the conserved CRIB that abrogate this binding result in misregulated kinase activation and chemotaxis defects. We also demonstrate that a null mutation lacking the PAK family member myosin I heavy chain kinase (MIHCK) shows mild chemotaxis defects, including the formation of lateral pseudopodia. A null strain lacking both PAKc and the PAK family member MIHCK exhibits severe loss of cell movement, suggesting that PAKc and MIHCK may cooperate to regulate a common chemotaxis pathway.

Myosins and cell dynamics in cellular slime molds

Myosin is a mechanochemical transducer and serves as a motor for various motile activities such as cell migration, cytokinesis, maintenance of cell shape, phagocytosis, and morphogenesis. Nonmuscle myosin in vivo does not either stay static at specific subcellular regions or construct highly organized structures, such as sarcomere in skeletal muscle cells. The cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum is an ideal "model organism" for the investigation of cell movement and cytokinesis. The advantages of this organism prompted researchers to carry out pioneering cell biological, biochemical, and molecular genetic studies on myosin II, which resulted in elucidation of many fundamental features of function and regulation of this most abundant molecular motor. Furthermore, recent molecular biological research has revealed that many unconventional myosins play various functions in vivo. In this article, how myosins are organized and regulated in a dynamic manner in Dictyostelium cells is reviewed and discussed.

Regulation of nonmuscle myosins by heavy chain phosphorylation

Functional activities of many nonmuscle myosin isoforms are (or are postulated to be) regulated by heavy chain phosphorylation. Depending on the myosin isoform, the serine or threonine residues located within the head (myosin I or myosin VI) or within the C-terminal tail domains (myosin II or myosin V) can be phosphorylated by more or less specific endogenous kinases. In some isoforms phosphorylation can occur both in the head and tail domains, as it has been found for myosin III. There are also isoforms that can be regulated both by the heavy and regulatory light chain phosphorylation, as for the example myosin II from slide mold Dictyostelium discoideum. The goal of this review was to describe recent findings on regulation of myosin I, myosin II, myosin III, myosin V and myosin VI isoforms by their heavy chain phosphorylation including the short charcteristics of the relevant kinases. The biological aspects of the phosphorylation are also discussed.