Mirk regulates the exit of colon cancer cells from quiescence

Cell-type dependent effect of 3D collagen matrix on cancer cell resistance to suboptimal conditions: the case of serum deprivation, glucose starvation, and hypoxia

The extracellular matrix (ECM) and its primary chemical components, including collagen, play a pivotal role in carcinogenesis and tumor progression. The ECM actively regulates cell proliferation, migration, and, importantly, resistance to various adverse factors. It is widely recognized as a key factor in modifying the resistance of tumor cells to various treatment modalities and cytotoxic compounds. However, the role of the ECM in tumor cell adaptation to nutritional deficiencies and hypoxic conditions remains significantly less studied. Since it is generally accepted that tumor cells resistance increases when cultured in a three-dimensional matrix, we sought to experimentally test the universality of this statement. In this work, we analyzed the responses of tumor cells with varying origins and proliferative activities, including human bladder carcinoma, epidermoid carcinoma, and ovarian carcinoma, to deprivation of serum, glucose and oxygen. We compared cell resistance to suboptimal conditions when cultured in a monolayer on tissue culture (TC)-treated polystyrene, on collagen-coated surfaces, or within a three-dimensional hydrogel composed of collagen type I. All three cell lines were stably transfected with fluorescent protein genes. To register the cell growth dynamics, we used a fluorescence-based technique that allows long-term quantitative observations without disrupting the hydrogel. The analyzed cell lines demonstrated different patterns of relative sensitivity to suboptimal conditions. We revealed that the direction and intensity of the collagen matrix effect depend on the cell type. Slowly proliferating ovarian carcinoma cells showed no noticeable changes in their behavior when cultured in a gel compared to a monolayer. In the case of bladder carcinoma, we registered predominantly resistance-stimulating effect of the collagen matrix, but it was significant only under serum deprivation. The most pronounced effect of collagen was registered for epidermoid carcinoma. Importantly, this effect was ambivalent: gel-embedded cells demonstrated significantly enhanced resistance to serum deprivation, but, at the same time, they were more responsive to glucose starvation and hypoxic conditions. We attribute the registered phenomenon to the individual characteristics of tumor cells with different origins and metabolic activities.

Identification of the MRTFA/SRF pathway as a critical regulator of quiescence in cancer

Chemoresistance is a major driver of cancer deaths. One understudied mechanism of chemoresistance is quiescence. We used single cell culture to identify, retrieve, and RNA-Seq profile primary quiescent ovarian cancer cells (qOvCa). We found that many qOvCa differentially expressed genes are transcriptional targets of the Myocardin Related Transcription Factor/Serum Response Factor (MRTF/SRF) pathway. We also found that genetic disruption of MRTF-SRF interaction, or an MRTF/SRF inhibitor (CCG257081) impact qOvCa gene expression and induce a quiescent state in cancer cells. Suggesting a broad role for this pathway in quiescence, CCG257081 treatment induced quiescence in breast, lung, colon, pancreatic and ovarian cancer cells. Furthermore, CCG081 (i) maintained a quiescent state in patient derived breast cancer organoids and, (ii) induced tumor growth arrest in ovarian cancer xenografts. Together, these data suggest that MRTF/SRF pathway is a critical regulator of quiescence in cancer and a possible therapeutic target.

DYRK1B blockade promotes tumoricidal macrophage activity in pancreatic cancer

OBJECTIVE

Highly malignant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterised by an abundant immunosuppressive and fibrotic tumour microenvironment (TME). Future therapeutic attempts will therefore demand the targeting of tumours and stromal compartments in order to be effective. Here we investigate whether dual specificity and tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B) fulfil these criteria and represent a promising anticancer target in PDAC.

DESIGN

We used transplantation and autochthonous mouse models of PDAC with either genetic Dyrk1b loss or pharmacological DYRK1B inhibition, respectively. Mechanistic interactions between tumour cells and macrophages were studied in direct or indirect co-culture experiments. Histological analyses used tissue microarrays from patients with PDAC. Additional methodological approaches included bulk mRNA sequencing (transcriptomics) and proteomics (secretomics).

RESULTS

We found that DYRK1B is mainly expressed by pancreatic epithelial cancer cells and modulates the influx and activity of TME-associated macrophages through effects on the cancer cells themselves as well as through the tumour secretome. Mechanistically, genetic ablation or pharmacological inhibition of DYRK1B strongly attracts tumoricidal macrophages and, in addition, downregulates the phagocytosis checkpoint and 'don't eat me' signal CD24 on cancer cells, resulting in enhanced tumour cell phagocytosis. Consequently, tumour cells lacking DYRK1B hardly expand in transplantation experiments, despite their rapid growth in culture. Furthermore, combining a small-molecule DYRK1B-directed therapy with mammalian target of rapamycin inhibition and conventional chemotherapy stalls the growth of established tumours and results in a significant extension of life span in a highly aggressive autochthonous model of PDAC.

CONCLUSION

In light of DYRK inhibitors currently entering clinical phase testing, our data thus provide a novel and clinically translatable approach targeting both the cancer cell compartment and its microenvironment.

Mirk/Dyrk1B Kinase Inhibitors in Targeted Cancer Therapy

During the last years, there has been an increased effort in the discovery of selective and potent kinase inhibitors for targeted cancer therapy. Kinase inhibitors exhibit less toxicity compared to conventional chemotherapy, and several have entered the market. Mirk/Dyrk1B kinase is a promising pharmacological target in cancer since it is overexpressed in many tumors, and its overexpression is correlated with patients' poor prognosis. Mirk/Dyrk1B acts as a negative cell cycle regulator, maintaining the survival of quiescent cancer cells and conferring their resistance to chemotherapies. Many studies have demonstrated the valuable therapeutic effect of Mirk/Dyrk1B inhibitors in cancer cell lines, mouse xenografts, and patient-derived 3D-organoids, providing a perspective for entering clinical trials. Since the majority of Mirk/Dyrk1B inhibitors target the highly conserved ATP-binding site, they exhibit off-target effects with other kinases, especially with the highly similar Dyrk1A. In this review, apart from summarizing the data establishing Dyrk1B as a therapeutic target in cancer, we highlight the most potent Mirk/Dyrk1B inhibitors recently reported. We also discuss the limitations and perspectives for the structure-based design of Mirk/Dyrk1B potent and highly selective inhibitors based on the accumulated structural data of Dyrk1A and the recent crystal structure of Dyrk1B with AZ191 inhibitor.

Targeting the survival kinase DYRK1B: A novel approach to overcome radiotherapy-related treatment resistance

BACKGROUND

Cancer cell survival under stress conditions is a prerequisite for the development of treatment resistance. The survival kinase DYRK1B is a key regulator of stress survival pathways and might thereby also contribute to radiation resistance. Here we investigate the strategy of targeting DYRK1B in combination with ionizing radiation (IR) to enhance tumor cell killing under stress conditions.

METHODS

DYRK1B expression, ROS formation and DNA damage were investigated under serum-starvation (0.1% FBS), hypoxia (0.2%, 1% O2) and IR. The combined treatment modality of IR and DYRK1B inhibition was investigated in 2D and in spheroids derived from the colorectal cancer cell line SW620, and in primary patient-derived colorectal carcinoma (CRC) organoids.

RESULTS

Expression of DYRK1B was upregulated under starvation and hypoxia, but not in response to IR. The small molecule DYRK1B inhibitor AZ191 and shRNA-mediated DYRK1B knockdown significantly reduced proliferative activity and clonogenicity of SW620 tumor cells alone and in combination with IR under serum-starved conditions, which correlated with increased ROS levels and DNA damage. Furthermore, AZ191 successfully targeted the hypoxic core of tumor spheroids while IR preferentially targeted normoxic cells in the rim of the spheroids. A combined treatment effect was also observed in CRC-organoids but not in healthy tissue-derived organoids.

CONCLUSION

Combined treatment with the DYRK1B inhibitor AZ191 and IR resulted in (supra-) additive tumor cell killing in colorectal tumor cell systems and in primary CRC organoids. Mechanistic investigations support the rational to target the stress-enhanced survival kinase DYRK1B in combination with irradiation to overcome hypoxia- and starvation-induced treatment resistances.

Quiescent Cancer Cells-A Potential Therapeutic Target to Overcome Tumor Resistance and Relapse

Quiescent cancer cells (QCCs) are nonproliferating cells arrested in the G0 phase, characterized by ki67^low and p27^high. QCCs avoid most chemotherapies, and some treatments could further lead to a higher proportion of QCCs in tumors. QCCs are also associated with cancer recurrence since they can re-enter a proliferative state when conditions are favorable. As QCCs lead to drug resistance and tumor recurrence, there is a great need to understand the characteristics of QCCs, decipher the mechanisms that regulate the proliferative-quiescent transition in cancer cells, and develop new strategies to eliminate QCCs residing in solid tumors. In this review, we discussed the mechanisms of QCC-induced drug resistance and tumor recurrence. We also discussed therapeutic strategies to overcome resistance and relapse by targeting QCCs, including (i) identifying reactive quiescent cancer cells and removing them via cell-cycle-dependent anticancer reagents; (ii) modulating the quiescence-to-proliferation switch; and (iii) eliminating QCCs by targeting their unique features. It is believed that the simultaneous co-targeting of proliferating and quiescent cancer cells may ultimately lead to the development of more effective therapeutic strategies for the treatment of solid tumors.

Dual-Specificity Tyrosine Phosphorylation-Regulated Kinase 1B Inhibition Promotes Megakaryocyte Polyploidization and Platelet Production

Platelets are produced from mature megakaryocytes which undergo polyploidization and proplatelet formation. Cell-cycle regulation plays a crucial role in megakaryocyte terminal differentiation especially in polyploidization. Dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B) controls cell-cycle progression in cancer cells. The objective of this study was to determine DYRK1B function in megakaryocyte maturation and platelet production. A DYRK1B knock-out mouse was generated with increased peripheral platelet count compared with the wild type mouse without affecting megakaryocyte numbers in bone marrow. Polyploidy and proplatelet formations were significantly enhanced when DYRK1B was depleted in vitro. DYRK1B inhibition promoted megakaryocyte maturation by simultaneously upregulating cyclin D1 and downregulating P27. Furthermore, there was platelet restoration in two mice disease models of transient thrombocytopenia. In summary, DYRK1B plays an important role in megakaryocyte maturation and platelet production by interacting with cyclin D1 and P27. DYRK1B inhibition has potential therapeutic value in transient thrombocytopenia treatment. Graphic Abstract.

The immunoregulation effect of tumor microenvironment in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic cancer has the seventh highest death rate of all cancers. The absence of any serious symptoms, coupled with a lack of early prognostic and diagnostic markers, makes the disease untreatable in most cases. This leads to a delay in diagnosis and the disease progresses so there is no cure. Only about 20% of cases are diagnosed early. Surgical removal is the preferred treatment for cancer, but chemotherapy is standard for advanced cancer, although patients can eventually develop drug resistance and serious side effects. Chemoresistance is multifactorial because of the interaction among pancreatic cancer cells, cancer stem cells, and the tumor microenvironment (TME). Nevertheless, more pancreatic cancer patients will benefit from precision treatment and targeted drugs. This review focuses on the immune-related components of TME and the interactions between tumor cells and TME during the development and progression of pancreatic cancer, including immunosuppression, tumor dormancy and escape. Finally, we discussed a variety of immune components-oriented immunotargeting drugs in TME from a clinical perspective.

Targeting DYRK1A/B kinases to modulate p21-cyclin D1-p27 signalling and induce anti-tumour activity in a model of human glioblastoma

The dual-specificity tyrosine-regulated kinases DYRK1A and DYRK1B play a key role in controlling the quiescence-proliferation switch in cancer cells. Serum reduction of U87MG 2D cultures or multi-cellular tumour spheroids induced a quiescent like state characterized by increased DYRK1B and p27, and decreased pRb and cyclin D1. VER-239353 is a potent, selective inhibitor of the DYRK1A and DYRK1B kinases identified through fragment and structure-guided drug discovery. Inhibition of DYRK1A/B by VER-239353 in quiescent U87MG cells increased pRb, DYRK1B and cyclin D1 but also increased the cell cycle inhibitors p21 and p27. This resulted in exit from G0 but subsequent arrest in G1. DYRK1A/B inhibition reduced the proliferation of U87MG cells in 2D and 3D culture with greater effects observed under reduced serum conditions. Paradoxically, the induced re-expression of cell cycle proteins by DYRK1A/B inhibition further inhibited cell proliferation. Cell growth arrest induced in quiescent cells by DYRK1A/B inhibition was reversible through the addition of growth-promoting factors. DYRK inhibition-induced DNA damage and synergized with a CHK1 inhibitor in the U87MG spheroids. In vivo, DYRK1A/B inhibition-induced tumour stasis in a U87MG tumour xenograft model. These results suggest that further evaluation of VER-239353 as a treatment for glioblastoma is therefore warranted.

Fragment-Derived Selective Inhibitors of Dual-Specificity Kinases DYRK1A and DYRK1B

The serine/threonine kinase DYRK1A has been implicated in regulation of a variety of cellular processes associated with cancer progression, including cell cycle control, DNA damage repair, protection from apoptosis, cell differentiation, and metastasis. In addition, elevated-level DYRK1A activity has been associated with increased severity of symptoms in Down's syndrome. A selective inhibitor of DYRK1A could therefore be of therapeutic benefit. We have used fragment and structure-based discovery methods to identify a highly selective, well-tolerated, brain-penetrant DYRK1A inhibitor which showed in vivo activity in a tumor model. The inhibitor provides a useful tool compound for further exploration of the effect of DYRK1A inhibition in models of disease.

Study of DYRK1B gene expression and its association with metabolic syndrome in a small cohort of Egyptians

BACKGROUND

A cluster of many risk factors for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease is used to describe the metabolic syndrome (MetS). Moreover, genetic differences associated with metabolic syndrome play a key role in its prevalence and side effects. This study aims to investigate the expression of DYRK1B and its association with metabolic syndrome in a small cohort of Egyptian.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 100 adult Egyptians (50 with MetS and 50 healthy control subjects) were included to this study. Clinical, biochemical and anthropometric analysis were assessed. Relative gene expressions of DYRK1B were compared between two groups of subjects using real time PCR.

RESULTS

We observed marked overexpression in DYRK1B (p < 0.05) in MetS subjects when compared with the healthy control subjects.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to provide evidence that DYRK1B is highly expressed among the MetS subjects.

Towards a Framework for Better Understanding of Quiescent Cancer Cells

Quiescent cancer cells (QCCs) are cancer cells that are reversibly suspended in G₀ phase with the ability to re-enter the cell cycle and initiate tumor growth, and, ultimately, cancer recurrence and metastasis. QCCs are also therapeutically challenging due to their resistance to most conventional cancer treatments that selectively act on proliferating cells. Considering the significant impact of QCCs on cancer progression and treatment, better understanding of appropriate experimental models, and the evaluation of QCCs are key questions in the field that have direct influence on potential pharmacological interventions. Here, this review focuses on existing and emerging preclinical models and detection methods for QCCs and discusses their respective features and scope for application. By providing a framework for selecting appropriate experimental models and investigative methods, the identification of the key players that regulate the survival and activation of QCCs and the development of more effective QCC-targeting therapeutic agents may mitigate the consequences of QCCs.

Minimal Residual Disease, Metastasis and Immunity

Progression from localized to metastatic disease requires cancer cells spreading to distant organs through the bloodstream. Only a small proportion of these circulating tumor cells (CTCs) survives dissemination due to anoikis, shear forces and elimination by the immune system. However, all metastases originate from CTCs capable of surviving and extravasating into distant tissue to re-initiate a tumor. Metastasis initiation is not always immediate as disseminated tumor cells (DTCs) may enter a non-dividing state of cell dormancy. Cancer dormancy is a reversible condition that can be maintained for many years without being clinically detectable. Subsequently, late disease relapses are thought to be due to cancer cells ultimately escaping from dormant state. Cancer dormancy is usually associated with minimal residual disease (MRD), where DTCs persist after intended curative therapy. Thus, MRD is commonly regarded as an indicator of poor prognosis in all cancers. In this review, we examine the current understanding of MRD and immunity during cancer progression to metastasis and discuss clinical perspectives for oncology.

Minibrain-related kinase/dual-specificity tyrosine-regulated kinase 1B implication in stem/cancer stem cells biology

Dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B), also known as minibrain-related kinase (MIRK) is one of the best functionally studied members of the DYRK kinase family. DYRKs comprise a family of protein kinases that are emerging modulators of signal transduction pathways, cell proliferation and differentiation, survival, and cell motility. DYRKs were found to participate in several signaling pathways critical for development and cell homeostasis. In this review, we focus on the DYRK1B protein kinase from a functional point of view concerning the signaling pathways through which DYRK1B exerts its cell type-dependent function in a positive or negative manner, in development and human diseases. In particular, we focus on the physiological role of DYRK1B in behavior of stem cells in myogenesis, adipogenesis, spermatogenesis and neurogenesis, as well as in its pathological implication in cancer and metabolic syndrome. Thus, understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate signaling pathways is of high importance. Recent studies have identified a close regulatory connection between DYRK1B and the hedgehog (HH) signaling pathway. Here, we aim to bring together what is known about the functional integration and cross-talk between DYRK1B and several signaling pathways, such as HH, RAS and PI3K/mTOR/AKT, as well as how this might affect cellular and molecular processes in development, physiology, and pathology. Thus, this review summarizes the major known functions of DYRK1B kinase, as well as the mechanisms by which DYRK1B exerts its functions in development and human diseases focusing on the homeostasis of stem and cancer stem cells.

The DYRK Family of Kinases in Cancer: Molecular Functions and Therapeutic Opportunities

DYRK (dual-specificity tyrosine-regulated kinases) are an evolutionary conserved family of protein kinases with members from yeast to humans. In humans, DYRKs are pleiotropic factors that phosphorylate a broad set of proteins involved in many different cellular processes. These include factors that have been associated with all the hallmarks of cancer, from genomic instability to increased proliferation and resistance, programmed cell death, or signaling pathways whose dysfunction is relevant to tumor onset and progression. In accordance with an involvement of DYRK kinases in the regulation of tumorigenic processes, an increasing number of research studies have been published in recent years showing either alterations of DYRK gene expression in tumor samples and/or providing evidence of DYRK-dependent mechanisms that contribute to tumor initiation and/or progression. In the present article, we will review the current understanding of the role of DYRK family members in cancer initiation and progression, providing an overview of the small molecules that act as DYRK inhibitors and discussing the clinical implications and therapeutic opportunities currently available.

In vitro and in vivo studies of cancer cell behavior under nutrient deprivation

Cancer cells are confronted with nutrient deprivation because of high proliferation rate, especially at the early stage of their development. There is a frequent assumption that nutrient deprivation decreases the basal activity of cancer cells. Contrarily, there are recent evidence suggesting that cancer cells are able to modulate signaling pathways to adapt with new condition and continue their survival. This property of cancer cells is believed to be one of the prerequisites for cancer progression and chemoresistance. Moreover, recent experiments show that serum starvation in vitro as a mimic situation of nutrient deprivation in vivo triggers different signaling pathways leading to changes in cancer cell behavior, which may interfere with experimental results. Considering these facts, a better understanding of the effect of nutrient deprivation on cancer cell behavior will help us to give more accurate conclusions regarding results of in vitro studies and also to develop new strategies to treat different cancers in vivo.

NFATC4 promotes quiescence and chemotherapy resistance in ovarian cancer

Development of chemotherapy resistance is a major problem in ovarian cancer. One understudied mechanism of chemoresistance is the induction of quiescence, a reversible nonproliferative state. Unfortunately, little is known about regulators of quiescence. Here, we identify the master transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells cytoplasmic 4 (NFATC4) as a regulator of quiescence in ovarian cancer. NFATC4 is enriched in ovarian cancer stem-like cells and correlates with decreased proliferation and poor prognosis. Treatment of cancer cells with cisplatin resulted in NFATC4 nuclear translocation and activation of the NFATC4 pathway, while inhibition of the pathway increased chemotherapy response. Induction of NFATC4 activity resulted in a marked decrease in proliferation, G0 cell cycle arrest, and chemotherapy resistance, both in vitro and in vivo. Finally, NFATC4 drove a quiescent phenotype in part via downregulation of MYC. Together, these data identify NFATC4 as a driver of quiescence and a potential new target to combat chemoresistance in ovarian cancer.

Cend1, a Story with Many Tales: From Regulation of Cell Cycle Progression/Exit of Neural Stem Cells to Brain Structure and Function

Neural stem/precursor cells (NPCs) generate the large variety of neuronal phenotypes comprising the adult brain. The high diversity and complexity of this organ have its origin in embryonic life, during which NPCs undergo symmetric and asymmetric divisions and then exit the cell cycle and differentiate to acquire neuronal identities. During these processes, coordinated regulation of cell cycle progression/exit and differentiation is essential for generation of the appropriate number of neurons and formation of the correct structural and functional neuronal circuits in the adult brain. Cend1 is a neuronal lineage-specific modulator involved in synchronization of cell cycle exit and differentiation of neuronal precursors. It is expressed all along the neuronal lineage, from neural stem/progenitor cells to mature neurons, and is associated with the dynamics of neuron-generating divisions. Functional studies showed that Cend1 has a critical role during neurogenesis in promoting cell cycle exit and neuronal differentiation. Mechanistically, Cend1 acts via the p53-dependent/Cyclin D1/pRb signaling pathway as well as via a p53-independent route involving a tripartite interaction with RanBPM and Dyrk1B. Upon Cend1 function, Notch1 signaling is suppressed and proneural genes such as Mash1 and Neurogenins 1/2 are induced. Due to its neurogenic activity, Cend1 is a promising candidate therapeutic gene for brain repair, while the Cend1 minimal promoter is a valuable tool for neuron-specific gene delivery in the CNS. Mice with Cend1 genetic ablation display increased NPC proliferation, decreased migration, and higher levels of apoptosis during development. As a result, they show in the adult brain deficits in a range of motor and nonmotor behaviors arising from irregularities in cerebellar cortex lamination and impaired Purkinje cell differentiation as well as a paucity in GABAergic interneurons of the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala. Taken together, these studies highlight the necessity for Cend1 expression in the formation of a structurally and functionally normal brain.

Mebendazole-induced M1 polarisation of THP-1 macrophages may involve DYRK1B inhibition

OBJECTIVE

We recently showed that the anti-helminthic compound mebendazole (MBZ) has immunomodulating activity by inducing a M2 to M1 phenotype switch in monocyte/macrophage models. In the present study we investigated the potential role of protein kinases in mediating this effect.

RESULTS

MBZ potently binds and inhibits Dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B) with a Kd and an IC50 of 7 and 360 nM, respectively. The specific DYRK1B inhibitor AZ191 did not mimic the cytokine release profile of MBZ in untreated THP-1 monocytes. However, in THP-1 cells differentiated into macrophages, AZ191 strongly induced a pro-inflammatory cytokine release pattern similar to MBZ and LPS/IFNγ. Furthermore, like MBZ, AZ191 increased the expression of the M1 marker CD80 and decreased the M2 marker CD163 in THP-1 macrophages. In this model, AZ191 also increased phospho-ERK activity although to a lesser extent compared to MBZ. Taken together, the results demonstrate that DYRK1B inhibition could, at least partly, recapitulate immune responses induced by MBZ. Hence, DYRK1B inhibition induced by MBZ may be part of the mechanism of action to switch M2 to M1 macrophages.

Up-regulation of Dyrk1b promote astrocyte activation following lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation

Astrocytes become activated in response to different stimulation. Dyrk1b is an arginine-directed serine/threonineprotein kinase that is expressed at elevated levels in many cancers but remains unknown in the pathologies of neuroinflammation. In this study, in vivo, we demonstrated that Dyrk1b expression was significantly increased and reached a peak at 12 h after LPS injection via Western blot. Double immunofluorescence staining showed that Dyrk1b co-located with GFAP and Ki67. In vitro, the expression of Dyrk1b, Ki67 and cyclinD1 was gradually increased and reached a peak at 12 h in a time-dependent manner after 1 μg/mL LPS stimulation. Knockdown of Dyrk1b significantly reduced the expression of Ki67 and cyclinD1. In addition, the data exhibited that silenced Dyrk1b decreased the expression of p-STAT3 in primary astrocyte cells, and Dyrk1b interacted with STAT3 in LPS-induced neuroinflammation. In conclusion, these results suggested that Dyrk1b is increased and may play a crucial role in regulating astrocyte cell activation via interact with STAT3 in LPS-induced neuroinflammation.

A wake-up call to quiescent cancer cells - potential use of DYRK1B inhibitors in cancer therapy

Nondividing cancer cells are relatively resistant to chemotherapeutic drugs and environmental stress factors. Promoting cell cycle re-entry of quiescent cancer cells is a potential strategy to enhance the cytotoxicity of agents that target cycling cells. It is therefore important to elucidate the mechanisms by which these cells are maintained in the quiescent state. The protein kinase dual specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B) is overexpressed in a subset of cancers and maintains cellular quiescence by counteracting G0 /G1 -S phase transition. Specifically, DYRK1B controls the S phase checkpoint by stabilizing the cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitor p27Kip1 and inducing the degradation of cyclin D. DYRK1B also stabilizes the DREAM complex that represses cell cycle gene expression in G0 arrested cells. In addition, DYRK1B enhances cell survival by upregulating antioxidant gene expression and reducing intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Substantial evidence indicates that depletion or inhibition of DYRK1B drives cell cycle re-entry and enhances apoptosis of those quiescent cancer cells with high expression of DYRK1B. Furthermore, small molecule DYRK1B inhibitors sensitize cells to the cytotoxic effects of anticancer drugs that target proliferating cells. These encouraging findings justify continued efforts to investigate the use of DYRK1B inhibitors to disrupt the quiescent state and overturn chemoresistance of noncycling cancer cells.

The Biology and Therapeutic Implications of Tumor Dormancy and Reactivation

Advancements in the early detection of cancer coupled with improved surgery, radiotherapy, and adjuvant therapy led to substantial increase in patient survival. Nevertheless, cancer metastasis is the leading cause of death in several cancer patients. The majority of these deaths are associated with metastatic relapse kinetics after a variable period of clinical remission. Most of the cancer recurrences are thought to be associated with the reactivation of dormant disseminated tumor cells (DTCs). In this review, we have summarized the cellular and molecular mechanisms related to DTCs and the role of microenvironmental niche. These mechanisms regulate the dormant state and help in the reactivation, which leads to metastatic outgrowth. Identification of novel therapeutic targets to eliminate these dormant tumor cells will be highly useful in controlling the metastatic relapse-related death with several cancers.

Targeting DYRK1B suppresses the proliferation and migration of liposarcoma cells

Liposarcoma is a common subtype of soft tissue sarcoma and accounts for 20% of all sarcomas. Conventional chemotherapeutic agents have limited efficacy in liposarcoma patients. Expression and activation of serine/threonine-protein kinase dual-specificity tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1B (DYRK1B) is associated with growth and survival of many types of cancer cells. However, the role of DYRK1B in liposarcoma remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the functional and therapeutic relevance of DYRK1B in liposarcoma. Tissue microarray and immunohistochemistry analysis showed that higher expression levels of DYRK1B correlated with a worse prognosis. RNA interference-mediated knockdown of DYRK1B or targeting DYRK1B with the kinase inhibitor AZ191 inhibited liposarcoma cell growth, decreased cell motility, and induced apoptosis. Moreover, combined AZ191 with doxorubicin demonstrated an increased anti-cancer effect on liposarcoma cells. These findings suggest that DYRK1B is critical for the growth of liposarcoma cells. Targeting DYRK1B provides a new rationale for treatment of liposarcoma.

Mimicking Muscle Stem Cell Quiescence in Culture: Methods for Synchronization in Reversible Arrest

Growing evidence supports the view that in adult stem cells, the defining stem cell features of potency and self-renewal are associated with the quiescent state. Thus, uncovering the molecular logic of this reversibly arrested state underlies not only a fundamental understanding of adult tissue dynamics but also hopes for therapeutic regeneration and rejuvenation of damaged or aging tissue. A key question concerns how adult stem cells use quiescence to establish or reinforce the property of self-renewal. Since self-renewal is largely studied by assays that measure proliferation, the concept of self-renewal programs imposed during non-proliferating conditions is counterintuitive. However, there is increasing evidence generated by deconstructing the quiescent state that highlights how programs characteristic of this particular cell cycle exit may enhance stem cell capabilities, through both cell-intrinsic and extrinsic programs.Toward this end, culture models that recapitulate key aspects of stem cell quiescence are useful for molecular analysis to explore attributes and regulation of the quiescent state. In this chapter, we review the different methods used to generate homogeneous populations of quiescent muscle cells, largely by manipulating culture conditions that feed into core signaling programs that regulate the cell cycle. We also provide detailed protocols developed or refined in our lab over the past two decades.

Tumor cell dormancy

Metastasis is the primary cause of death in cancer patients and current treatments fail to provide durable responses. Efforts to treat metastatic disease are hindered by the fact that metastatic cells often remain dormant for prolonged intervals of years, or even decades. Tumor dormancy reflects the capability of disseminated tumor cells (DTCs), or micrometastases, to evade treatment and remain at low numbers after primary tumor resection. Unfortunately, dormant cells will eventually produce overt metastasis. Innovations are needed to understand metastatic dormancy and improve cancer detection and treatment. Currently, few models exist that faithfully recapitulate metastatic dormancy and metastasis to clinically relevant tissues, such as the bone. Herein, we discuss recent advances describing genetic cell‐autonomous and systemic or local changes in the microenvironment that have been shown to endow DTCs with properties to survive and eventually colonize distant organs.

JARID1B Enables Transit between Distinct States of the Stem-like Cell Population in Oral Cancers

The degree of heterogeneity among cancer stem cells (CSC) remains ill-defined and may hinder effective anti-CSC therapy. Evaluation of oral cancers for such heterogeneity identified two compartments within the CSC pool. One compartment was detected using a reporter for expression of the H3K4me3 demethylase JARID1B to isolate a JARID1B(high) fraction of cells with stem cell-like function. JARID1B(high) cells expressed oral CSC markers including CD44 and ALDH1 and showed increased PI3K pathway activation. They were distinguished from a fraction in a G0-like cell-cycle state characterized by low reactive oxygen species and suppressed PI3K/AKT signaling. G0-like cells lacked conventional CSC markers but were primed to acquire stem cell-like function by upregulating JARID1B, which directly mediated transition to a state expressing known oral CSC markers. The transition was regulated by PI3K signals acting upstream of JARID1B expression, resulting in PI3K inhibition depleting JARID1B(high) cells but expanding the G0-like subset. These findings define a novel developmental relationship between two cell phenotypes that may jointly contribute to CSC maintenance. Expansion of the G0-like subset during targeted depletion of JARID1B(high) cells implicates it as a candidate therapeutic target within the oral CSC pool. Cancer Res; 76(18); 5538-49. ©2016 AACR.

Design and synthesis of a potent inhibitor of class 1 DYRK kinases as a suppressor of adipogenesis

Dysregulation of dual-specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A) has been demonstrated in several pathological conditions, including Alzheimer's disease and cancer progression. It has been recently reported that a gain of function-mutation in the human DYRK1B gene exacerbates metabolic syndrome by enhancing obesity. In the previous study, we developed an inhibitor of DYRK family kinases (INDY) and demonstrated that INDY suppresses the pathological phenotypes induced by overexpression of DYRK1A or DYRK1B in cellular and animal models. In this study, we designed and synthesized a novel inhibitor of DYRK family kinases based on the crystal structure of the DYRK1A/INDY complex by replacing the phenol group of INDY with dibenzofuran to produce a derivative, named BINDY. This compound exhibited potent and selective inhibitory activity toward DYRK family kinases in an in vitro assay. Furthermore, treatment of 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes with BINDY hampered adipogenesis by suppressing gene expression of the critical transcription factors PPARγ and C/EBPα. This study indicates the possibility of BINDY as a potential drug for metabolic syndrome.

The Tumor Suppressor NKX3.1 Is Targeted for Degradation by DYRK1B Kinase

NKX3.1 is a prostate-specific homeodomain protein and tumor suppressor whose expression is reduced in the earliest phases of prostatic neoplasia. NKX3.1 expression is not only diminished by genetic loss and methylation, but the protein itself is a target for accelerated degradation caused by inflammation that is common in the aging prostate gland. NKX3.1 degradation is activated by phosphorylation at C-terminal serine residues that mediate ubiquitination and protein turnover. Because NKX3.1 is haploinsufficient, strategies to increase its protein stability could lead to new therapies. Here, a high-throughput screen was developed using an siRNA library for kinases that mediate NKX3.1 degradation. This approach identified several candidates, of which DYRK1B, a kinase that is subject to gene amplification and overexpression in other cancers, had the greatest impact on NKX3.1 half-life. Mechanistically, NKX3.1 and DYRK1B were shown to interact via the DYRK1B kinase domain. In addition, an in vitro kinase assay showed that DYRK1B phosphorylated NKX3.1 at serine 185, a residue critical for NKX3.1 steady-state turnover. Lastly, small-molecule inhibitors of DYRK1B prolonged NKX3.1 half-life. Thus, DYRK1B is a target for enzymatic inhibition in order to increase cellular NKX3.1.

IMPLICATIONS

DYRK1B is a promising and novel kinase target for prostate cancer treatment mediated by enhancing NKX3.1 levels.

Mirk kinase inhibition blocks the in vivo growth of pancreatic cancer cells

The Mirk/dyrk1B gene is upregulated and sometimes amplified in pancreatic ductal carcinomas. In poor microenvironmental conditions Mirk mediates cell survival by maintaining cancer cells in a largely quiescent, noncycling state and by decreasing toxic ROS levels through maintaining expression of a series of antioxidant genes. Premature entry into cycle, increased ROS levels, DNA damage, and apoptosis follow Mirk kinase depletion or inhibition. Mirk kinase inhibitor EHT5372 treated Panc1 spheroids lost quiescence markers coincident with an increase in cyclin A showing entry into cycle, and exhibited DNA damage, apoptosis and smaller size. EHT5372 treatment in vivo led to an increased fraction of Ki67 positive, cycling cells in Panc1 xenografts whose size was reduced. Pdx-1-cre LSL/KrasG12D/Ink4a/Arf null B6 mice always develop pancreatic cancer, allowing only 30% survival by 8 weeks, while each of the Mirk kinase inhibitor treated mice survived 8 weeks. Mirk inhibition led to a roughly four-fold increase in tumor αSMA-positive fibroblasts and large stromal collagen-rich infiltrates in the pancreas that can restrain tumor growth. The mTOR inhibitor RAD001 alone, or together with EHT5372, reduced pancreatic cancer size 30-fold, while the drug combination reduced the number of microscopic tumor foci 2-fold compared to RAD001 alone.

Mirk/dyrk1B kinase is upregulated following inhibition of mTOR

The PI3K/PTEN/Akt/mTOR/p70S6K pathway is one of the most frequently deregulated signaling pathways in solid tumors and has a functional role in drug resistance. However, targeting this pathway leads to compensatory activation of several mediators of cell survival. Expression of the reactive oxygen species-controlling kinase Mirk/dyrk1B was increased severalfold by the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors RAD001, WYE354 and rapamycin, with less effect by the Akt inhibitors AZD5363 and MK-2206. Upregulation of Mirk messenger RNA (mRNA) expression was mediated by cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) binding to two sites in the Mirk promoter upstream of the transcription start site and one site within exon 4. Depletion of CREB reduced Mirk expression, whereas depletion of mTOR increased it. Moreover, hydroxytamoxifen activation of an Akt-estrogen receptor construct blocked an increase in Mirk mRNA and protein. Addition of a Mirk/dyrk1B kinase inhibitor increased the sensitivity of Panc1 pancreatic cancer cells and three different ovarian cancer cell lines to the mTOR inhibitor RAD001. Targeting Mirk kinase could improve the utility of mTOR inhibitors and so presents an attractive drug target.

Mechanisms of disseminated cancer cell dormancy: an awakening field

Metastases arise from residual disseminated tumour cells (DTCs). This can happen years after primary tumour treatment because residual tumour cells can enter dormancy and evade therapies. As the biology of minimal residual disease seems to diverge from that of proliferative lesions, understanding the underpinnings of this new cancer biology is key to prevent metastasis. Analysis of approximately 7 years of literature reveals a growing focus on tumour and normal stem cell quiescence, extracellular and stromal microenvironments, autophagy and epigenetics as mechanisms that dictate tumour cell dormancy. In this Review, we attempt to integrate this information and highlight both the weaknesses and the strengths in the field to provide a framework to understand and target this crucial step in cancer progression.

Mirk kinase inhibition targets ovarian cancer ascites

The Mirk/dyrk1B gene is commonly amplified or upregulated in ovarian cancers, and Mirk is an active kinase in these cancers. Mirk mediates cancer cell survival by decreasing toxic ROS levels through maintaining expression of a series of antioxidant genes, possibly through its transcriptional activator functions. Mirk has the unusual property of being most active in quiescent cancer cells because of marked transcriptional downregulation by Akt/mTOR signaling and by MEK/erk signaling in cycling cells. Metastatic ovarian cancer cells form ascites, non-adherent multicellular aggregates floating within the peritoneal fluid. Most ascites cancer cells are in a reversible quiescent, dormant state, suggesting that Mirk might be expressed in these quiescent cells and thus a therapeutic target. The current studies show that ovarian cancer cell line spheroids that mimic ascites cancer spheroids were largely quiescent in G0/G1, and enriched in Mirk and the quiescence proteins, p130/Rb2 and the CDKI p27. Mirk kinase inhibition in spheroids made from established cell lines and in patient-derived ascites cancer cell spheroids reduced spheroid volume, disrupted spheroid structure to single cells, increased apoptosis, and decreased cell numbers. Earlier studies had shown that the mTOR inhibitor RAD001 increased transcription of the Mirk/dyrk1B gene, so treatments combined RAD001 with the most active Mirk kinase inhibitor. The number of ascites cells from 9 patients was reduced a similar amount by cisplatin, Mirk kinase inhibition or RAD001, but reduced substantially more, about 90%, by concurrent treatment with both the Mirk kinase inhibitor EHT5372 and RAD001. Addition of RAD001 increased the amount of toxic ROS induced by Mirk kinase inhibition. Two ascites samples taken one month apart gave similar drug responses, showing reproducibility of the techniques. Thus Mirk/dyrk1B kinase may be a therapeutic target in ovarian cancer ascites.

The Down syndrome-related protein kinase DYRK1A phosphorylates p27(Kip1) and Cyclin D1 and induces cell cycle exit and neuronal differentiation

A fundamental question in neurobiology is how the balance between proliferation and differentiation of neuronal precursors is maintained to ensure that the proper number of brain neurons is generated. Substantial evidence implicates DYRK1A (dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A) as a candidate gene responsible for altered neuronal development and brain abnormalities in Down syndrome. Recent findings support the hypothesis that DYRK1A is involved in cell cycle control. Nonetheless, how DYRK1A contributes to neuronal cell cycle regulation and thereby affects neurogenesis remains poorly understood. In the present study we have investigated the mechanisms by which DYRK1A affects cell cycle regulation and neuronal differentiation in a human cell model, mouse neurons, and mouse brain. Dependent on its kinase activity and correlated with the dosage of overexpression, DYRK1A blocked proliferation of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells within 24 h and arrested the cells in G₁ phase. Sustained overexpression of DYRK1A induced G₀ cell cycle exit and neuronal differentiation. Furthermore, we provide evidence that DYRK1A modulated protein stability of cell cycle-regulatory proteins. DYRK1A reduced cellular Cyclin D1 levels by phosphorylation on Thr286, which is known to induce proteasomal degradation. In addition, DYRK1A phosphorylated p27(Kip1) on Ser10, resulting in protein stabilization. Inhibition of DYRK1A kinase activity reduced p27(Kip1) Ser10 phosphorylation in cultured hippocampal neurons and in embryonic mouse brain. In aggregate, these results suggest a novel mechanism by which overexpression of DYRK1A may promote premature neuronal differentiation and contribute to altered brain development in Down syndrome.

A novel DYRK1B inhibitor AZ191 demonstrates that DYRK1B acts independently of GSK3β to phosphorylate cyclin D1 at Thr(286), not Thr(288)

DYRK1B (dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1B) is amplified in certain cancers and may be an oncogene; however, our knowledge of DYRK1B has been limited by the lack of selective inhibitors. In the present study we describe AZ191, a potent small molecule inhibitor that selectively inhibits DYRK1B in vitro and in cells. CCND1 (cyclin D1), a key regulator of the mammalian G1-S-phase transition, is phosphorylated on Thr(286) by GSK3β (glycogen synthase kinase 3β) to promote its degradation. DYRK1B has also been proposed to promote CCND1 turnover, but was reported to phosphorylate Thr(288) rather than Thr(286). Using in vitro kinase assays, phospho-specific immunoblot analysis and MS in conjunction with AZ191 we now show that DYRK1B phosphorylates CCND1 at Thr(286), not Thr(288), in vitro and in cells. In HEK (human embryonic kidney)-293 and PANC-1 cells (which exhibit DYRK1B amplification) DYRK1B drives Thr(286) phosphorylation and proteasome-dependent turnover of CCND1 and this is abolished by AZ191 or DYRK1B RNAi, but not by GSK3β inhibitors or GSK3β RNAi. DYRK1B expression causes a G1-phase cell-cycle arrest, but overexpression of CCND1 (wild-type or T286A) fails to overcome this; indeed, DYRK1B also promotes the expression of p21CIP1 (21 kDa CDK-interacting protein 1) and p27KIP1 (CDK-inhibitory protein 1). The results of the present study demonstrate for the first time that DYRK1B is a novel Thr(286)-CCND1 kinase that acts independently of GSK3β to promote CCND1 degradation. Furthermore, we anticipate that AZ191 may prove useful in defining further substrates and biological functions of DYRK1B.

Functional Interactions between BM88/Cend1, Ran-binding protein M and Dyrk1B kinase affect cyclin D1 levels and cell cycle progression/exit in mouse neuroblastoma cells

BM88/Cend1 is a neuronal-lineage specific modulator with a pivotal role in coordination of cell cycle exit and differentiation of neuronal precursors. In the current study we identified the signal transduction scaffolding protein Ran-binding protein M (RanBPM) as a BM88/Cend1 binding partner and showed that BM88/Cend1, RanBPM and the dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1B (Dyrk1B) are expressed in mouse brain as well as in cultured embryonic cortical neurons while RanBPM can form complexes with either of the two other proteins. To elucidate a potential mechanism involving BM88/Cend1, RanBPM and Dyrk1B in cell cycle progression/exit, we transiently co-expressed these proteins in mouse neuroblastoma Neuro 2a cells. We found that the BM88/Cend1-dependent or Dyrk1B-dependent down-regulation of cyclin D1 is reversed following their functional interaction with RanBPM. More specifically, functional interaction of RanBPM with either BM88/Cend1 or Dyrk1B stabilizes cyclin D1 in the nucleus and promotes 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation as a measure of enhanced cell proliferation. However, the RanBPM-dependent Dyrk1B cytosolic retention and degradation is reverted in the presence of Cend1 resulting in cyclin D1 destabilization. Co-expression of RanBPM with either BM88/Cend1 or Dyrk1B also had a negative effect on Neuro 2a cell differentiation. Our results suggest that functional interactions between BM88/Cend1, RanBPM and Dyrk1B affect the balance between cellular proliferation and differentiation in Neuro 2a cells and indicate that a potentially similar mechanism may influence cell cycle progression/exit and differentiation of neuronal precursors.

Ovarian cancer cells, not normal cells, are damaged by Mirk/Dyrk1B kinase inhibition

Prior studies had shown that the Mirk/dyrk1B gene is amplified/upregulated in about 75% of ovarian cancers, that protein levels of this kinase are elevated in quiescent G0 cells and that Mirk maintains tumor cells in quiescence by initiating rapid degradation of cyclin D isoforms and by phosphorylation of a member of the DREAM complex. Depletion of Mirk/dyrk1B led to increased cyclin D levels, an elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) content and loss of viability. However, many normal cells in vivo are quiescent, and therefore, targeting a kinase found in quiescent cells might be problematic. In our study, Mirk kinase activity was found to be higher in ovarian cancer cells than in normal cells. Pharmacological inhibition of Mirk/dyrk1B kinase increased cyclin D levels both in quiescent normal diploid cells and in quiescent CDKN2A-negative ovarian cancer cells, but led to more active CDK4/cyclin D complexes in quiescent ovarian cancer cells, allowing them to escape G0/G1 quiescence, enter cycle with high ROS levels and undergo apoptosis. The ROS scavenger N-acetyl cysteine reduced both the amount of cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) and the extent of cancer cell loss. In contrast, normal cells were spared because of their expression of cyclin directed kinase (CDK) inhibitors that blocked unregulated cycling. Quiescent early passage normal ovarian epithelial cells and two strains of quiescent normal diploid fibroblasts remained viable after the inhibition of Mirk/dyrk1B kinase, and the few cells that left G0/G1 quiescence were accumulated in G2+M. Thus, inhibition of Mirk kinase targeted quiescent ovarian cancer cells.

A Whole Genome Screen for Minisatellite Stability Genes in Stationary-Phase Yeast Cells

Repetitive elements comprise a significant portion of most eukaryotic genomes. Minisatellites, a type of repetitive element composed of repeat units 15−100 bp in length, are stable in actively dividing cells but change in composition during meiosis and in stationary-phase cells. Alterations within minisatellite tracts have been correlated with the onset of a variety of diseases, including diabetes mellitus, myoclonus epilepsy, and several types of cancer. However, little is known about the factors preventing minisatellite alterations. Previously, our laboratory developed a color segregation assay in which a minisatellite was inserted into the ADE2 gene in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to monitor alteration events. We demonstrated that minisatellite alterations that occur in stationary-phase cells give rise to a specific colony morphology phenotype known as blebbing. Here, we performed a modified version of the synthetic genetic array analysis to screen for mutants that produce a blebbing phenotype. Screens were conducted using two distinctly different minisatellite tracts: the ade2-min3 construct consisting of three identical 20-bp repeats, and the ade2-h7.5 construct, consisting of seven-and-a-half 28-bp variable repeats. Mutations in 102 and 157 genes affect the stability of the ade2-min3 and ade2-h7.5 alleles, respectively. Only seven hits overlapped both screens, indicating that different factors regulate repeat stability depending upon minisatellite size and composition. Importantly, we demonstrate that mismatch repair influences the stability of the ade2-h7.5 allele, indicating that this type of DNA repair stabilizes complex minisatellites in stationary phase cells. Our work provides insight into the factors regulating minisatellite stability.

Mirk/Dyrk1B mediates G0/G1 to S phase cell cycle progression and cell survival involving MAPK/ERK signaling in human cancer cells

Background

Mirk/Dyrk1B contributes to G0 arrest by destabilization of cyclin D1 and stabilization of p27kip1 to maintain the viability of quiescent human cancer cells, and it could be negatively regulated by mitogenic-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. This study was performed to investigate the effect of Mirk/Dyrk1B on cell cycle and survival of human cancer cells involving MAPK/ERK signaling.

Methods

The correlations between Mirk/Dyrk1B expression and active ERK1/2 detected by western blot in both ovarian cancer and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells were analyzed by simple regression. Mirk/Dyrk1B unique phosphopeptides with sites associated with Mirk/Dyrk1B protein were isolated and quantitated by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) proteomics analysis. The human cancer cells were treated with small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and/or U0126, an inhibitor of MEK for indicated duration, followed by investigating the alterations of cell cycle and apoptosis as well as related proteins examined by flow cytometry and Western blot, respectively.

Results

Our study demonstrated the widely expressed Mirk/Dyrk1B proteins in the human cancer cells were positively correlated with the levels of activated ERK1/2. Moreover, Mirk/Dyrk1B protein expressions consistent with the tyrosine autophosphorylated levels in the human cancer cells were increased by U0126 or growth factor-depleted culture. Conversely, knockdown of Mirk/Dyrk1B by siRNA led to up-regulated activation of c-Raf-MEK-ERK1/2 pathway and subsequent changes in cell cycle proteins (cyclin D1, p27kip1), accompanied by increased growth rate and cells from G0/G1 into S of cell cycle which could be blocked by U0126 in a dose-dependent manner, indicating Mirk/Dyrk1B may sequester MAPK/ERK pathway, and vice versa. Whereas, combined Mirk siRNA and U0126 induced cell apoptosis in the human cancer cells.

Conclusions

These data together show that Mirk/Dyrk1B mediates cell cycle and survival via interacting with MAPK/ERK signals and simultaneous inhibition of both pathways may be a novel therapeutic target for human cancer.

Novel checkpoint pathway organization promotes genome stability in stationary-phase yeast cells

Most DNA alterations occur during DNA replication in the S phase of the cell cycle. However, the majority of eukaryotic cells exist in a nondividing, quiescent state. Little is known about the factors involved in preventing DNA instability within this stationary-phase cell population. Previously, we utilized a unique assay system to identify mutations that increased minisatellite alterations specifically in quiescent cells in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here we conducted a modified version of synthetic genetic array analysis to determine if checkpoint signaling components play a role in stabilizing minisatellites in stationary-phase yeast cells. Our results revealed that a subset of checkpoint components, specifically MRC1, CSM3, TOF1, DDC1, RAD17, MEC3, TEL1, MEC1, and RAD53, prevent stationary-phase minisatellite alterations within the quiescent cell subpopulation of stationary-phase cells. Pathway analysis revealed at least three pathways, with MRC1, CSM3, and TOF1 acting in a pathway independent of MEC1 and RAD53. Overall, our data indicate that some well-characterized checkpoint components maintain minisatellite stability in stationary-phase cells but are regulated differently in those cells than in actively growing cells. For the MRC1-dependent pathway, the checkpoint itself may not be the important element; rather, it may be loss of the checkpoint proteins' other functions that contributes to DNA instability.

Inactivation of mirk/dyrk1b kinase targets quiescent pancreatic cancer cells

A major problem in the treatment of cancer arises from quiescent cancer cells that are relatively insensitive to most chemotherapeutic drugs and radiation. Such residual cancer cells can cause tumor regrowth or recurrence when they reenter the cell cycle. Earlier studies showed that levels of the serine/theronine kinase Mirk/dyrk1B are elevated up to 10-fold in quiescent G(0) tumor cells. Mirk uses several mechanisms to block cell cycling, and Mirk increases expression of antioxidant genes that decrease reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and increase quiescent cell viability. We now show that a novel small molecule Mirk kinase inhibitor blocked tumor cells from undergoing reversible arrest in a quiescent G(0) state and enabled some cells to exit quiescence. The inhibitor increased cycling in Panc1, AsPc1, and SW620 cells that expressed Mirk, but not in HCT116 cells that did not. Mirk kinase inhibition elevated ROS levels and DNA damage detected by increased phosphorylation of the histone protein H2AX and by S-phase checkpoints. The Mirk kinase inhibitor increased cleavage of the apoptotic proteins PARP and caspase 3, and increased tumor cell kill several-fold by gemcitabine and cisplatin. A phenocopy of these effects occurred following Mirk depletion, showing drug specificity. In previous studies Mirk knockout or depletion had no detectable effect on normal tissue, suggesting that the Mirk kinase inhibitor could have a selective effect on cancer cells expressing elevated levels of Mirk kinase.

Transient arrest in a quiescent state allows ovarian cancer cells to survive suboptimal growth conditions and is mediated by both Mirk/dyrk1b and p130/RB2

Some ovarian cancer cells in vivo are in a reversible quiescent state where they can contribute to cancer spread under favorable growth conditions. The serine/threonine kinase Mirk/dyrk1B was expressed in each of seven ovarian cancer cell lines and in 21 of 28 resected human ovarian cancers, and upregulated in 60% of the cancers. Some ovarian cancer cells were found in a G0 quiescent state, with the highest fraction in a line with an amplified Mirk gene. Suboptimal culture conditions increased the G0 fraction in SKOV3 and TOV21G, but not OVCAR4 cultures. Less than half as many OVCAR4 cells survived under suboptimal culture conditions as shown by total cell numbers, dye exclusion viability studies, and assay of cleaved apoptotic marker proteins. G0 arrest in TOV21G and SKOV3 cells led to increased levels of Mirk, the CDK inhibitor p27, p130/Rb2, and p130/Rb2 complexed with E2F4. The G0 arrest was transient, and cells exited G0 when fresh nutrients were supplied. Depletion of p130/Rb2 reduced the G0 fraction, increased cell sensitivity to serum-free culture and to cisplatin, and reduced Mirk levels. Mirk contributed to G0 arrest by destabilization of cyclin D1. In TOV21G cells, but not in normal diploid fibroblasts, Mirk depletion led to increased apoptosis and loss of viability. Because Mirk is expressed at low levels in most normal adult tissues, the elevated Mirk protein levels in ovarian cancers may present a novel therapeutic target, in particular for quiescent tumor cells which are difficult to eradicate by conventional therapies targeting dividing cells.

Potent and selective small molecule inhibitors of specific isoforms of Cdc2-like kinases (Clk) and dual specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinases (Dyrk)

Continued examination of substituted 6-arylquinazolin-4-amines as Clk4 inhibitors resulted in selective inhibitors of Clk1, Clk4, Dyrk1A and Dyrk1B. Several of the most potent inhibitors were validated as being highly selective within a comprehensive kinome scan.

Depleting Mirk Kinase Increases Cisplatin Toxicity in Ovarian Cancer Cells

Cisplatin-based regimens are the standard of care for epithelial carcinoma of the ovary. Since cisplatin is known to increase intracellular levels of toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), an increase in cisplatin toxicity selectively in cancer cells could result from further increasing the cisplatin-elevated ROS levels by targeting antioxidant genes upregulated in ovarian cancers. The serine/threonine kinase Mirk/dyrk1B is a transcriptional co-activator which increased the expression of the antioxidant genes superoxide dismutase 2 and ferroxidase in ovarian cancer cells. As a result, depletion of Mirk increased cellular ROS levels in each of 4 ovarian cancer cell lines. Mirk depletion averaged only about 4 fold, yet combined with cisplatin treatment enabled low levels of drug to increase ROS to toxic levels in both SKOV3 and TOV21G ovarian cancer cells. Lowering ROS levels by treatment with N-acetyl cysteine limited cisplatin toxicity, resulting in higher cell numbers and decreased cleavage of the apoptotic proteins PARP and caspase 3. Mirk has also been shown to block cells in G1 by inducing proteolysis of cyclin D1. Mirk depletion increased cyclin D1 levels in 3 of 4 ovarian cancer cell lines, implying that some Mirk depleted cells could more readily enter cycle, potentially increasing their sensitivity to cisplatin. Since Mirk is upregulated in a large subset of human ovarian cancers, but is expressed at low levels in most normal tissues, and embryonic knockout of Mirk results in viable and fertile mice, targeting Mirk may sensitize ovarian cancers to lower levels of cisplatin, while sparing normal tissues.

The zebrafish dyrk1b gene is important for endoderm formation

Nodal-signaling is required for specification of mesoderm, endoderm, establishing left-right asymmetry, and craniofacial development. Wdr68 is a WD40-repeat domain-containing protein recently shown to be required for endothelin-1 (edn1) expression and subsequent lower jaw development. Previous reports detected the Wdr68 protein in multiprotein complexes containing mammalian members of the dual-specificity tyrosine-regulated kinase (dyrk) family. Here we describe the characterization of the zebrafish dyrk1b homolog. We report the detection of a physical interaction between Dyrk1b and Wdr68. We also found perturbations of nodal signaling in dyrk1b antisense morpholino knockdown (dyrk1b-MO) animals. Specifically, we found reduced expression of lft1 and lft2 (lft1/2) during gastrulation and a near complete loss of the later asymmetric lft1/2 expression domains. Although wdr68-MO animals did not display lft1/2 expression defects during gastrulation, they displayed a near complete loss of the later asymmetric lft1/2 expression domains. While expression of ndr1 was not substantially effected during gastrulation, ndr2 expression was moderately reduced in dyrk1b-MO animals. Analysis of additional downstream components of the nodal signaling pathway in dyrk1b-MO animals revealed modestly expanded expression of the dorsal axial mesoderm marker gsc while the pan-mesodermal marker bik was largely unaffected. The endodermal markers cas and sox17 were also moderately reduced in dyrk1b-MO animals. Notably, and similar to defects previously reported for wdr68 mutant animals, we also found reduced expression of the pharyngeal pouch marker edn1 in dyrk1b-MO animals. Taken together, these data reveal a role for dyrk1b in endoderm formation and craniofacial patterning in the zebrafish.

The kinase Mirk is a potential therapeutic target in osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary malignant bone tumor affecting children and adolescents. The majority of patients are treated by surgery and chemotherapy but have limited alternative therapeutic options. Kinases play an important role in the growth and survival of tumor cells. We aim to identify specific kinases to be vital in the survival of osteosarcoma cells and thus may be a key target in creating novel anticancer therapies. A lentiviral short hairpin RNA kinase library, screened osteosarcoma cells, identified kinase minibrain-related kinase (Mirk) (Dyrk1B) as a potential target. Knockdown Mirk expression could inhibit cell growth and induce apoptosis. Chemically synthetic small interfering RNA knockdown and complementary DNA rescue assay further confirmed the results from the decrease of Mirk gene expression. The relationship between Mirk gene expression and the clinical characteristics of patients with osteosarcoma was investigated using tissue microarray and immunohistochemistry analysis. The data indicate that the overall survival rate of patients with Mirk high staining (high levels of Mirk protein expression) is significantly shorter than those with Mirk low staining and moderate staining. This highlights Mirk's potential to serve as a promising target for molecular therapy in the treatment of osteosarcoma.

Increased tolerance to artemisinin in Plasmodium falciparum is mediated by a quiescence mechanism

Artemisinin (ART)-based combination therapies (ACTs) are the first-line drugs-and often the last treatments-that can effectively cure Plasmodium falciparum infections. Unfortunately, the decreased clinical efficacy of artesunate, one of the major ART derivatives, was recently reported along the Thailand-Cambodia border. Through long-term artemisinin pressure in vitro, we have obtained an ART-tolerant strain that can survive extremely high doses of ART. We showed that drug pressure could induce a subpopulation of ring stages into developmental arrest, which can explain the ART tolerance in P. falciparum. We also observed interesting transcriptomic modifications possibly associated with the acquisition of ART tolerance. These modifications include the overexpression of heat shock and erythrocyte surface proteins and the downexpression of a cell cycle regulator and a DNA biosynthesis protein. This study highlights a new phenomenon in the Plasmodium response to ART that may explain the delayed clearance of parasites after artesunate treatment observed on the Thailand-Cambodia border and that provides important information for achieving a better understanding of the mechanisms of antimalarial resistance.

The function of p27 KIP1 during tumor development

Timely cell cycle regulation is conducted by sequential activation of a family of serine-threonine kinases called cycle dependent kinases (CDKs). Tight CDK regulation involves cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors (CKIs) which ensure the correct timing of CDK activation in different phases of the cell cycle. One CKI of importance is p27(KIP1). The regulation and cellular localization of p27(KIP1) can result in biologically contradicting roles when found in the nucleus or cytoplasm of both normal and tumor cells. The p27(KIP1) protein is mainly regulated by proteasomal degradation and its downregulation is often correlated with poor prognosis in several types of human cancers. The protein can also be functionally inactivated by cytoplasmic localization or by phosphorylation. The p27(KIP1) protein is an unconventional tumor suppressor because mutation of its gene is extremely rare in tumors, implying the normal function of the protein is deranged during tumor development. While the tumor suppressor function is mediated by p27(KIP1)s inhibitory interactions with the cyclin/CDK complexes, its oncogenic function is cyclin/CDK independent, and in many cases correlates with cytoplasmic localization. Here we review the basic features and novel aspects of the p27(KIP1) protein, which displays genetically separable tumor suppressing and oncogenic functions.