Ser(120) of Ubc2/Rad6 regulates ubiquitin-dependent N-end rule targeting by E3{alpha}/Ubr1

Insights into the recognition mechanism in the UBR box of UBR4 for its specific substrates

The N-end rule pathway is a proteolytic system involving the destabilization of N-terminal amino acids, known as N-degrons, which are recognized by N-recognins. Dysregulation of the N-end rule pathway results in the accumulation of undesired proteins, causing various diseases. The E3 ligases of the UBR subfamily recognize and degrade N-degrons through the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Herein, we investigated UBR4, which has a distinct mechanism for recognizing type-2 N-degrons. Structural analysis revealed that the UBR box of UBR4 differs from other UBR boxes in the N-degron binding sites. It recognizes type-2 N-terminal amino acids containing an aromatic ring and type-1 N-terminal arginine through two phenylalanines on its hydrophobic surface. We also characterized the binding mechanism for the second ligand residue. This is the report on the structural basis underlying the recognition of type-2 N-degrons by the UBR box with implications for understanding the N-end rule pathway.

[Metabolic pathways controlled by E3 ligases: an opportunity for therapeutic targeting]

Since its discovery, the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) has been recognized for its major role in controlling most of the cell's metabolic pathways. In addition to its essential role in the degradation of proteins, it is also involved in the addressing, signaling or repair of DNA, which makes it a key player in cellular homeostasis. Although other control systems exist in the cell, the UPS is often referred to as the conductor. In view of its importance, any dysregulation of the UPS leads to more or less severe disorders for the cell and therefore the body, which accounts for UPS implication in many pathologies (cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, etc.). UPS is made up of more than 1000 different proteins, the combinations of which allow the fine targeting of virtually all proteins in the body. UPS uses an enzymatic cascade (E1, 2 members; E2 > 35; E3 > 800) which allows the transfer of ubiquitin, a small protein of 8.5 kDa onto the protein to be targeted either for its degradation or to modify its activity. This ubiquitinylation signal is reversible and many deubiquitinylases (DUB, ∼ 80 isoforms) also have an important role. E3 enzymes are the most numerous and their function is to recognize the target protein, which makes them important players in the specific action of UPS. The very nature of E3 and the complexity of their interactions with different partners offer a very broad field of investigation and therefore significant potential for the development of therapeutic approaches. Without being exhaustive, this review illustrates the different strategies that have already been implemented to fight against different pathologies (excluding bacterial or viral infections).

The mechanism of neural precursor cell expressed developmentally down-regulated 4-2 (Nedd4-2)/NEDD4L-catalyzed polyubiquitin chain assembly

The mechanism of Nedd4-2 has been quantitatively explored for the first time using biochemically defined kinetic assays examining rates of ¹²⁵I-polyubiquitin chain assembly as a functional readout. We demonstrate that Nedd4-2 exhibits broad specificity for E2 paralogs of the Ubc4/5 clade to assemble Lys⁶³-linked polyubiquitin chains. Full-length Nedd4-2 catalyzes free ¹²⁵I-polyubiquitin chain assembly by hyperbolic Michaelis-Menten kinetics with respect to Ubc5B∼ubiquitin thioester concentration (K_m = 44 ± 6 nm; k_cat = 0.020 ± 0.007 s^-1) and substrate inhibition above 0.5 μm (K_i = 2.5 ± 1.3 μm) that tends to zero velocity, requiring ordered binding at two functionally distinct E2∼ubiquitin-binding sites. The Ubc5BC85A product analog non-competitively inhibits Nedd4-2 (K_i = 2.0 ± 0.5 μm), consistent with the presence of the second E2-binding site. In contrast, the isosteric Ubc5BC85S-ubiquitin oxyester substrate analog exhibits competitive inhibition at the high-affinity Site 1 (K_i = 720 ± 340 nm) and non-essential activation at the lower-affinity Site 2 (K_act = 750 ± 260 nm). Additional studies utilizing Ubc5BF62A, defective in binding the canonical E2 site, demonstrate that the cryptic Site 1 is associated with thioester formation, whereas binding at the canonical site (Site 2) is associated with polyubiquitin chain elongation. Finally, previously described Ca²⁺-dependent C2 domain-mediated autoinhibition of Nedd4-2 is not observed under our reported experimental conditions. These studies collectively demonstrate that Nedd4-2 catalyzes polyubiquitin chain assembly by an ordered two-step mechanism requiring two dynamically linked E2∼ubiquitin-binding sites analogous to that recently reported for E6AP, the founding member of the Hect ligase family.

Ubiquitin-like Protein Conjugation: Structures, Chemistry, and Mechanism

Ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubl's) are conjugated to target proteins or lipids to regulate their activity, stability, subcellular localization, or macromolecular interactions. Similar to ubiquitin, conjugation is achieved through a cascade of activities that are catalyzed by E1 activating enzymes, E2 conjugating enzymes, and E3 ligases. In this review, we will summarize structural and mechanistic details of enzymes and protein cofactors that participate in Ubl conjugation cascades. Precisely, we will focus on conjugation machinery in the SUMO, NEDD8, ATG8, ATG12, URM1, UFM1, FAT10, and ISG15 pathways while referring to the ubiquitin pathway to highlight common or contrasting themes. We will also review various strategies used to trap intermediates during Ubl activation and conjugation.

Role of E2-RING Interactions in Governing RNF4-Mediated Substrate Ubiquitination

Members of the really interesting new gene (RING) E3 ubiquitin ligase family bind to both substrate and ubiquitin-charged E2 enzyme, promoting the transfer of ubiquitin from the E2 to substrate. Either a single ubiquitin or one of the several types of polyubiquitin chains can be conjugated to substrate proteins, with different types of ubiquitin modifications signaling the distinct outcomes. E2 enzymes play a central role in governing the nature of the ubiquitin modification, although the essential features of the E2 that differentiate mono- versus polyubiquitinating E2 enzymes remain unclear. RNF4 is a compact RING E3 ligase that directs the ubiquitination of polySUMO chains in concert with several different E2 enzymes. RNF4 monoubiquitinates polySUMO substrates in concert with RAD6B and polyubiquitinates substrates together with UBCH5B, a promiscuous E2 that can function with a broad range of E3 ligases. We find that the divergent ubiquitination activities of RAD6B and UBCH5B are governed by differences at the RING-binding surface of the E2. By mutating the RAD6B RING-binding surface to resemble that of UBCH5B, RAD6B can be transformed into a highly active UBCH5B-like E2 that polyubiquitinates SUMO chains in concert with RNF4. The switch in RAD6B activity correlates with increased affinity of the E2 for RNF4. These results point to an important role of the affinity between an E3 and its cognate E2 in governing the multiplicity of substrate ubiquitination.

UBE2B is implicated in myofibrillar protein loss in catabolic C2C12 myotubes

BACKGROUND

Skeletal muscle protein loss is an adaptive response to various patho-physiological situations, and the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) is responsible for the degradation of the bulk of muscle proteins. The role of E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes is still poorly understood in skeletal muscle.

METHODS

We screened for E2s expression levels in C2C12 myotubes submitted to the catabolic glucocorticoid dexamethasone (Dex).

RESULTS

One micromolar Dex induced an accumulation of proteasome substrates (polyUb conjugates) and an overexpression of the muscle-specific E3 ligase MuRF1 and of six E2 enzymes, UBE2A, UBE2B, UBE2D1, UBE2D2, UBE2G1, and UBE2J1. However, only MuRF1 and UBE2B were sensitive to mild catabolic conditions (0.16 μM Dex). UBE2B knockdown induced a sharp decrease of total (-18%) and K48 (-28%) Ub conjugates, that is, proteasome substrates, indicating an important role of UBE2B in the overall protein breakdown in catabolic myotubes.

CONCLUSIONS

Interestingly, these results indicate an important role of UBE2B on muscle protein homeostasis during catabolic conditions.

E2 superfamily of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes: constitutively active or activated through phosphorylation in the catalytic cleft

Protein phosphorylation is a modification that offers a dynamic and reversible mechanism to regulate the majority of cellular processes. Numerous diseases are associated with aberrant regulation of phosphorylation-induced switches. Phosphorylation is emerging as a mechanism to modulate ubiquitination by regulating key enzymes in this pathway. The molecular mechanisms underpinning how phosphorylation regulates ubiquitinating enzymes, however, are elusive. Here, we show the high conservation of a functional site in E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes. In catalytically active E2s, this site contains aspartate or a phosphorylatable serine and we refer to it as the conserved E2 serine/aspartate (CES/D) site. Molecular simulations of substrate-bound and -unbound forms of wild type, mutant and phosphorylated E2s, provide atomistic insight into the role of the CES/D residue for optimal E2 activity. Both the size and charge of the side group at the site play a central role in aligning the substrate lysine toward E2 catalytic cysteine to control ubiquitination efficiency. The CES/D site contributes to the fingerprint of the E2 superfamily. We propose that E2 enzymes can be divided into constitutively active or regulated families. E2s characterized by an aspartate at the CES/D site signify constitutively active E2s, whereas those containing a serine can be regulated by phosphorylation.

Role of E2-Ub-conjugating enzymes during skeletal muscle atrophy

The Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) is a major actor of muscle wasting during various physio-pathological situations. In the past 15 years, increasing amounts of data have depicted a picture, although incomplete, of the mechanisms implicated in myofibrillar protein degradation, from the discovery of muscle-specific E3 ligases to the identification of the signaling pathways involved. The targeting specificity of the UPS relies on the capacity of the system to first recognize and then label the proteins to be degraded with a poly-ubiquitin (Ub) chain. It is fairly assumed that the recognition of the substrate is accomplished by the numerous E3 ligases present in mammalian cells. However, most E3s do not possess any catalytic activity and E2 enzymes may be more than simple Ub-providers for E3s since they are probably important actors in the ubiquitination machinery. Surprisingly, most authors have tried to characterize E3 substrates, but the exact role of E2s in muscle protein degradation is largely unknown. A very limited number of the 35 E2s described in humans have been studied in muscle protein breakdown experiments and the vast majority of studies were only descriptive. We review here the role of E2 enzymes in skeletal muscle and the difficulties linked to their study and provide future directions for the identification of muscle E2s responsible for the ubiquitination of contractile proteins.

New therapeutic strategy for hepatocellular carcinoma by molecular targeting agents via inhibition of cellular stress defense mechanisms

The prognosis of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has remained very poor.It has recently been reported that the molecular targeting agent sorafenib can improve the prognosis of patients with advanced HCC. However, the detailed mechanisms of sorafenib, especially its direct effects on hepatoma and hepatocyte cells, are poorly understood, making a more detailed investigation about the molecular mechanism of sorafenib necessary. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is related to the pathophysiology of various liver diseases, including chronic viral hepatitis, alcoholic and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and HCC. In this regard, our recent data examining the molecular effects of sorafenib focused on the cellular defense mechanisms from ER stress, the unfolded protein response (UPR) and keratin phosphorylation, demonstrated that sorafenib inhibited both important cytoprotective mechanisms, UPR and keratin phosphorylation, and enhances the anti-tumor effect in combination with proteasome inhibitors. This review summarizes the cytoprotective mechanisms from ER stress and our results about the direct effect of sorafenib on the cytoprotective mechanisms.

Structural and functional insights to ubiquitin-like protein conjugation

Attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubls) to cellular proteins regulates numerous cellular processes including transcription, the cell cycle, stress responses, DNA repair, apoptosis, immune responses, and autophagy, to name a few. The mechanistically parallel but functionally distinct conjugation pathways typically require the concerted activities of three types of protein: E1 Ubl-activating enzymes, E2 Ubl carrier proteins, and E3 Ubl ligases. E1 enzymes initiate pathway specificity for each cascade by recognizing and activating cognate Ubls, followed by catalyzing Ubl transfer to cognate E2 protein(s). Under certain circumstances, the E2 Ubl complex can direct ligation to the target protein, but most often requires the cooperative activity of E3 ligases. Reviewed here are recent structural and functional studies that improve our mechanistic understanding of E1-, E2-, and E3-mediated Ubl conjugation.

Sorafenib enhances proteasome inhibitor-mediated cytotoxicity via inhibition of unfolded protein response and keratin phosphorylation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is highly resistant to conventional systemic therapies and prognosis for advanced HCC patients remains poor. Recent studies of the molecular mechanisms responsible for tumor initiation and progression have identified several potential molecular targets in HCC. Sorafenib is a multi-kinase inhibitor shown to have survival benefits in advanced HCC. It acts by inhibiting the serine/threonine kinases and the receptor type tyrosine kinases. In preclinical experiments sorafenib had anti-proliferative activity in hepatoma cells and it reduced tumor angiogenesis and increased apoptosis. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that the cytotoxic mechanisms of sorafenib include its inhibitory effects on protein ubiquitination, unfolded protein response (UPR) and keratin phosphorylation in response to endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Moreover, we show that combined treatment with sorafenib and proteasome inhibitors (PIs) synergistically induced a marked increase in cell death in hepatoma- and hepatocyte-derived cells. These observations may open the way to potentially interesting treatment combinations that may augment the effect of sorafenib, possibly including drugs that promote ER stress. Because sorafenib blocked the cellular defense mechanisms against hepatotoxic injury not only in hepatoma cells but also in hepatocyte-derived cells, we must be careful to avoid severe liver injury.

Tripartite motif ligases catalyze polyubiquitin chain formation through a cooperative allosteric mechanism

Ligation of polyubiquitin chains to proteins is a fundamental post-translational modification, often resulting in targeted degradation of conjugated proteins. Attachment of polyubiquitin chains requires the activities of an E1 activating enzyme, an E2 carrier protein, and an E3 ligase. The mechanism by which polyubiquitin chains are formed remains largely speculative, especially for RING-based ligases. The tripartite motif (TRIM) superfamily of ligases functions in many cellular processes including innate immunity, cellular localization, development and differentiation, signaling, and cancer progression. The present results show that TRIM ligases catalyze polyubiquitin chain formation in the absence of substrate, the rates of which can be used as a functional readout of enzyme function. Initial rate studies under biochemically defined conditions show that TRIM32 and TRIM25 are specific for the Ubc5 family of E2-conjugating proteins and, along with TRIM5α, exhibit cooperative kinetics with respect to Ubc5 concentration, with submicromolar [S]0.5 and Hill coefficients of 3-5, suggesting they possess multiple binding sites for their cognate E2-ubiquitin thioester. Mutation studies reveal a second, non-canonical binding site encompassing the C-terminal Ubc5α-helix. Polyubiquitin chain formation requires TRIM subunit oligomerization through the conserved coiled-coil domain, but can be partially replaced by fusing the catalytic domain to GST to promote dimerization. Other results suggest that TRIM32 assembles polyubiquitin chains as a Ubc5-linked thioester intermediate. These results represent the first detailed mechanistic study of TRIM ligase activity and provide a functional context for oligomerization observed in the superfamily.

Ubiquitin- and ubiquitin-like proteins-conjugating enzymes (E2s) in breast cancer

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Sub-types of breast cancer defined by the expression of steroid hormones and Her2/Neu oncogene have distinct prognosis and undergo different therapies. Besides differing in their phenotype, sub-types of breast cancer display various molecular lesions that participate in their pathogenesis. BRCA1 is one of the common hereditary cancer predisposition genes and encodes for an ubiquitin ligase. Ubiquitin ligases or E3 enzymes participate together with ubiquitin activating enzyme and ubiquitin conjugating enzymes in the attachment of ubiquitin (ubiquitination) in target proteins. Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification regulating multiple cell functions. It also plays important roles in carcinogenesis in general and in breast carcinogenesis in particular. Ubiquitin conjugating enzymes are a central component of the ubiquitination machinery and are often perturbed in breast cancer. This paper will discuss ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins conjugating enzymes participating in breast cancer pathogenesis, their relationships with other proteins of the ubiquitination machinery and their role in phenotype of breast cancer sub-types.

Role of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in nervous system function and disease: using C. elegans as a dissecting tool

In addition to its central roles in protein quality control, regulation of cell cycle, intracellular signaling, DNA damage response and transcription regulation, the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) plays specific roles in the nervous system, where it contributes to precise connectivity through development, and later assures functionality by regulating a wide spectrum of neuron-specific cellular processes. Aberrations in this system have been implicated in the etiology of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we provide an updated view on the UPS and highlight recent findings concerning its role in normal and diseased nervous systems. We discuss the advantages of the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans as a tool to unravel the major unsolved questions concerning this biochemical pathway and its involvement in nervous system function and dysfunction, and expose the new possibilities, using state-of-the-art techniques, to assess UPS function using this model system.

Measuring rates of ubiquitin chain formation as a functional readout of ligase activity

Specificity within the pathways of ubiquitin conjugation are defined by protein-binding affinities among the components. Enzyme kinetics provides a facile high-resolution experimental approach for quantitating such protein-binding affinities and yields additional mechanistic insights into the transition state of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction. Most ubiquitin ligases form free polyubiquitin chains at a slow rate in the absence of their cognate target protein as a normal step in their overall catalytic cycle. Rates of polyubiquitin chain formation can, therefore, be used as a reporter function kinetically to characterize binding interactions within the ligation pathway. We describe experimental approaches for: (1) precisely quantitating functional E1 and E2 concentrations by their stoichiometric formation of (125)I-ubiquitin thiolester; (2) semiquantitative screens to define the cognate E2(s) for ubiquitin ligases based on their ability to support polyubiquitin chain formation; (3) initial rate studies to quantify K (m) and k (cat) as a measure of the ability of specific E2-ubiquitin thiolester substrates to support ligase-catalyzed polyubiquitin chain formation; and (4) an isopeptidase T-based technique for distinguishing between free and conjugated polyubiquitin chains formed in the functional assays. These kinetic methods provide mechanistic insights that are otherwise inaccessible by other experimental approaches and yield a precision in characterizing protein interactions that exceeds that of other techniques.

E1-E2 interactions in ubiquitin and Nedd8 ligation pathways

Initial rates of E1-catalyzed E2 transthiolation have been used as a reporter function to probe the mechanism of 125I-ubiquitin transfer between activation and ligation half-reactions of ubiquitin conjugation. A functional survey of 11 representative human E2 paralogs reveals similar Km for binding to human Uba1 ternary complex (Km(ave)=121±72 nm) and kcat for ubiquitin transfer (kcat(ave)=4.0±1.2 s(-1)), suggesting that they possess a conserved binding site and transition state geometry and that they compete for charging through differences in intracellular concentration. Sequence analysis and mutagenesis localize this binding motif to three basic residues within Helix 1 of the E2 core domain, confirmed by transthiolation kinetics. Partial conservation of the motif among E2 paralogs not recognized by Uba1 suggests that another factor(s) account for the absolute specificity of cognate E2 binding. Truncation of the Uba1 carboxyl-terminal β-grasp domain reduces cognate Ubc2b binding by 31-fold and kcat by 3.5×10(4)-fold, indicating contributions to E2 binding and transition state stabilization. Truncation of the paralogous domain from the Nedd8 activating enzyme has negligible effect on cognate Ubc12 transthiolation but abrogates E2 specificity toward non-cognate carrier proteins. Exchange of the β-grasp domains between ubiquitin and Nedd8 activating enzymes fails to reverse the effect of truncation. Thus, the conserved Helix 1 binding motif and the β-grasp domain direct general E2 binding, whereas the latter additionally serves as a specificity filter to exclude charging of non-cognate E2 paralogs in order to maintain the fidelity of downstream signaling.