Structure-guided Mutational Analysis of the Nucleotidyltransferase Domain of Escherichia coli DNA Ligase (LigA)

Identification of Novel Inhibitors of Escherichia coli DNA Ligase (LigA)

Present in all organisms, DNA ligases catalyse the formation of a phosphodiester bond between a 3' hydroxyl and a 5' phosphate, a reaction that is essential for maintaining genome integrity during replication and repair. Eubacterial DNA ligases use NAD⁺ as a cofactor and possess low sequence and structural homology relative to eukaryotic DNA ligases which use ATP as a cofactor. These key differences enable specific targeting of bacterial DNA ligases as an antibacterial strategy. In this study, four small molecule accessible sites within functionally important regions of Escherichia coli ligase (EC-LigA) were identified using in silico methods. Molecular docking was then used to screen for small molecules predicted to bind to these sites. Eight candidate inhibitors were then screened for inhibitory activity in an in vitro ligase assay. Five of these (geneticin, chlorhexidine, glutathione (reduced), imidazolidinyl urea and 2-(aminomethyl)imidazole) showed dose-dependent inhibition of EC-LigA with half maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀) in the micromolar to millimolar range (11-2600 µM). Two (geneticin and chlorhexidine) were predicted to bind to a region of EC-LigA that has not been directly investigated previously, raising the possibility that there may be amino acids within this region that are important for EC-LigA activity or that the function of essential residues proximal to this region are impacted by inhibitor interactions with this region. We anticipate that the identified small molecule binding sites and inhibitors could be pursued as part of an antibacterial strategy targeting bacterial DNA ligases.

Two-metal versus one-metal mechanisms of lysine adenylylation by ATP-dependent and NAD+-dependent polynucleotide ligases

Polynucleotide ligases comprise a ubiquitous superfamily of nucleic acid repair enzymes that join 3'-OH and 5'-PO₄ DNA or RNA ends. Ligases react with ATP or NAD⁺ and a divalent cation cofactor to form a covalent enzyme-(lysine-Nζ)-adenylate intermediate. Here, we report crystal structures of the founding members of the ATP-dependent RNA ligase family (T4 RNA ligase 1; Rnl1) and the NAD⁺-dependent DNA ligase family (Escherichia coli LigA), captured as their respective Michaelis complexes, which illuminate distinctive catalytic mechanisms of the lysine adenylylation reaction. The 2.2-Å Rnl1•ATP•(Mg²⁺)₂ structure highlights a two-metal mechanism, whereby: a ligase-bound "catalytic" Mg²⁺(H₂O)₅ coordination complex lowers the pK_a of the lysine nucleophile and stabilizes the transition state of the ATP α phosphate; a second octahedral Mg²⁺ coordination complex bridges the β and γ phosphates; and protein elements unique to Rnl1 engage the γ phosphate and associated metal complex and orient the pyrophosphate leaving group for in-line catalysis. By contrast, the 1.55-Å LigA•NAD⁺•Mg²⁺ structure reveals a one-metal mechanism in which a ligase-bound Mg²⁺(H₂O)₅ complex lowers the lysine pK_a and engages the NAD⁺ α phosphate, but the β phosphate and the nicotinamide nucleoside of the nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) leaving group are oriented solely via atomic interactions with protein elements that are unique to the LigA clade. The two-metal versus one-metal dichotomy demarcates a branchpoint in ligase evolution and favors LigA as an antibacterial drug target.

Biochemical and Structural Characterisation of DNA Ligases from Bacteria and Archaea

DNA ligases are enzymes that seal breaks in the backbones of DNA, leading to them being essential for the survival of all organisms. DNA ligases have been studied from many different types of cells and organisms and shown to have diverse sizes and sequences, with well conserved specific sequences that are required for enzymatic activity. A significant number of DNA ligases have been isolated or prepared in recombinant forms and, here, we review their biochemical and structural characterisation. All DNA ligases contain an essential lysine that transfers an adenylate group from a co-factor to the 5'-phosphate of the DNA end that will ultimately be joined to the 3'-hydroxyl of the neighbouring DNA strand. The essential DNA ligases in bacteria use nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( β -NAD+) as their co-factor whereas those that are essential in other cells use adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) as their co-factor. This observation suggests that the essential bacterial enzyme could be targeted by novel antibiotics and the complex molecular structure of β -NAD+ affords multiple opportunities for chemical modification. Several recent studies have synthesised novel derivatives and their biological activity against a range of DNA ligases has been evaluated as inhibitors for drug discovery and/or non-natural substrates for biochemical applications. Here, we review the recent advances that herald new opportunities to alter the biochemical activities of these important enzymes. The recent development of modified derivatives of nucleotides highlights that the continued combination of structural, biochemical and biophysical techniques will be useful in targeting these essential cellular enzymes.

Kinetic mechanism and fidelity of nick sealing by Escherichia coli NAD+-dependent DNA ligase (LigA)

Escherichia coli DNA ligase (EcoLigA) repairs 3′-OH/5′-PO₄ nicks in duplex DNA via reaction of LigA with NAD⁺ to form a covalent LigA-(lysyl-Nζ)–AMP intermediate (step 1); transfer of AMP to the nick 5′-PO₄ to form an AppDNA intermediate (step 2); and attack of the nick 3′-OH on AppDNA to form a 3′-5′ phosphodiester (step 3). A distinctive feature of EcoLigA is its stimulation by ammonium ion. Here we used rapid mix-quench methods to analyze the kinetic mechanism of single-turnover nick sealing by EcoLigA–AMP. For substrates with correctly base-paired 3′-OH/5′-PO₄ nicks, k_step2 was fast (6.8–27 s⁻¹) and similar to k_step3 (8.3–42 s⁻¹). Absent ammonium, k_step2 and k_step3 were 48-fold and 16-fold slower, respectively. EcoLigA was exquisitely sensitive to 3′-OH base mispairs and 3′ N:abasic lesions, which elicited 1000- to >20000-fold decrements in k_step2. The exception was the non-canonical 3′ A:oxoG configuration, which EcoLigA accepted as correctly paired for rapid sealing. These results underscore: (i) how EcoLigA requires proper positioning of the nick 3′ nucleoside for catalysis of 5′ adenylylation; and (ii) EcoLigA's potential to embed mutations during the repair of oxidative damage. EcoLigA was relatively tolerant of 5′-phosphate base mispairs and 5′ N:abasic lesions.

Mechanistic assessment of DNA ligase as an antibacterial target in Staphylococcus aureus

We report the use of a known pyridochromanone inhibitor with antibacterial activity to assess the validity of NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligase (LigA) as an antibacterial target in Staphylococcus aureus. Potent inhibition of purified LigA was demonstrated in a DNA ligation assay (inhibition constant [K(i)] = 4.0 nM) and in a DNA-independent enzyme adenylation assay using full-length LigA (50% inhibitory concentration [IC(50)] = 28 nM) or its isolated adenylation domain (IC(50) = 36 nM). Antistaphylococcal activity was confirmed against methicillin-susceptible and -resistant S. aureus (MSSA and MRSA) strains (MIC = 1.0 μg/ml). Analysis of spontaneous resistance potential revealed a high frequency of emergence (4 × 10(-7)) of high-level resistant mutants (MIC > 64) with associated ligA lesions. There were no observable effects on growth rate in these mutants. Of 22 sequenced clones, 3 encoded point substitutions within the catalytic adenylation domain and 19 in the downstream oligonucleotide-binding (OB) fold and helix-hairpin-helix (HhH) domains. In vitro characterization of the enzymatic properties of four selected mutants revealed distinct signatures underlying their resistance to inhibition. The infrequent adenylation domain mutations altered the kinetics of adenylation and probably elicited resistance directly. In contrast, the highly represented OB fold domain mutations demonstrated a generalized resistance mechanism in which covalent LigA activation proceeds normally and yet the parameters of downstream ligation steps are altered. A resulting decrease in substrate K(m) and a consequent increase in substrate occupancy render LigA resistant to competitive inhibition. We conclude that the observed tolerance of staphylococcal cells to such hypomorphic mutations probably invalidates LigA as a viable target for antistaphylococcal chemotherapy.

Structure guided understanding of NAD+ recognition in bacterial DNA ligases

NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligases (LigA) are essential bacterial enzymes that catalyze phosphodiester bond formation during DNA replication and repair processes. Phosphodiester bond formation proceeds through a 3-step reaction mechanism. In the first step, the LigA adenylation domain interacts with NAD(+) to form a covalent enzyme-AMP complex. Although it is well established that the specificity for binding of NAD(+) resides within the adenylation domain, the precise recognition elements for the initial binding event remain unclear. We report here the structure of the adenylation domain from Haemophilus influenzae LigA. This structure is a first snapshot of a LigA-AMP intermediate with NAD(+) bound to domain 1a in its open conformation. The binding affinities of NAD(+) for adenylated and nonadenylated forms of the H. influenzae LigA adenylation domain were similar. The combined crystallographic and NAD(+)-binding data suggest that the initial recognition of NAD(+) is via the NMN binding region in domain 1a of LigA.

Selectivity of Enzymatic Conversion of Oligonucleotide Probes during Nucleotide Polymorphism Analysis of DNA

The analysis of DNA nucleotide polymorphisms is one of the main goals of DNA diagnostics. DNA-dependent enzymes (DNA polymerases and DNA ligases) are widely used to enhance the sensitivity and reliability of systems intended for the detection of point mutations in genetic material. In this article, we have summarized the data on the selectiveness of DNA-dependent enzymes and on the structural factors in enzymes and DNA which influence the effectiveness of mismatch discrimination during enzymatic conversion of oligonucleotide probes on a DNA template. The data presented characterize the sensitivity of a series of DNA-dependent enzymes that are widely used in the detection of noncomplementary base pairs in nucleic acid substrate complexes. We have analyzed the spatial properties of the enzyme-substrate complexes. These properties are vital for the enzymatic reaction and the recognition of perfect DNA-substrates. We also discuss relevant approaches to increasing the selectivity of enzyme-dependent reactions. These approaches involve the use of modified oligonucleotide probes which "disturb" the native structure of the DNA-substrate complexes.